Valuable Information about Trees & Plants

Proper Mowing

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Many people who want a handsome lawn do not realize just how important the job of mowing really is. There are five dimensions of mowing to be considered. (a) Cutting height (b) Mowing Frequency (c) Mowing pattern (d) Blade Sharpness, and (e) Disposal of clippings.

Height

Cutting height of different varieties of grass is mentioned below. Lowering the cutting height can be disastrous. Removal of a large portion of the leaf results in reduced carbohydrate production, because the leaves are largely responsible for photosynthesis.

Frequency

The general rule for mowing is that no more than 1/3 of the leaf should be removed with any one cutting. Mowing frequency varies according to the time of year, weather conditions, and general rate of growth.

Pattern

The mowing pattern is far less critical but should be considered. A side-by-side mowing pattern is acceptable if the 360° turns can be made on sidewalks or roadways. If the turf is thinning due to about face sums, try a circular cut.

Blade Sharpness

Sharp mower blades cut the grass blade cleanly. If the blades aren't they don't cut cleanly they will shred your grass. Shredding the grass blade makes the grass more susceptible to disease.

Do not remove clippings.

Short clippings decay quite rapidly and do not contribute to thatch formation. The only two situations when clippings should be removed (a) When excessive clippings may smother the lawn. (b) When surface clippings give the lawn an objectionable appearance.

The two most common errors of mowing are:

Lawn isn't mowed often enough.
Lawn is mowed too short.

The proper heights are:

Bluegrass (Common Kentucky) — 2" to 2 1/2"
Bluegrass (Improved Varieties) — 1 1/2" to 2"
Fescues — 2" to 3"
Ryegrass — 2" to 3"

Landscape Watering

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One of the best ways to reduce the risk of potential insect or disease problems is to water the landscape properly. Nothing is more important to a plants ability to survive than proper watering. Too little water will reduce the plants ability to establish itself and thrive thereby leaving it susceptible to possible pest damage. Soils kept too moist will weaken a plant thereby leaving it susceptible to rot and other diseases. When asked to try and diagnose a particular insect or disease problem, more often than not it will somehow be related to moisture.

Factors that influence how often you may need to water are temperature, soil types, amounts of sunlight and mulch (types and amounts). The easiest way to check if supplemental watering is necessary is to check the soil. If the soil is dry to a depth of approximately ½", watering will be necessary. Some plants in the landscape could also be used as indicator plants. These are plants that typically will wilt or begin to scorch when sufficient water is lacking. When daytime high temperatures are in the mid-70s, watering once a week may be sufficient, whereas when the daytime high temperatures are in the mid-90s, watering as often as every other day may needed. Clay soils will typically hold more moisture than sandy soils so adjustments may be needed based on the soil types. Heat stressed areas of the landscape may also need more attention than the shaded areas. Stone mulches may also require more water than a wood type mulch since moisture will evaporate faster from the stone mulch.

As for the amount of water, the soil should be kept moist but not water logged. Watering once a week thoroughly is better than a quick brief showering every other day. Watering the area underneath the plant is best. Simply let a slow gentle stream of water run from the garden hose in this area. An occasional watering over the tops of the plants will also be beneficial in washing the plants free of potential insect problems. Yes, washing is beneficial in pest management.

The best time to water is in the morning. This gives the plants time to dry off thus reducing the possibility of disease problems. Midday watering is O.K. but realize that more water may be needed to offset the evaporation that occurs. Also, plants may scorch in the mid day sun if water is left on the plant surface. Evening would be the worst time to water. It lets the water sit overnight on the plant surface and increases the potential of disease activity. Watering at the least preferred time is still better than not watering at all.

Watering the landscape today is much easier than in the past. Complete irrigation systems can be installed using the latest equipment. Various types of irrigation heads, hoses, connectors and nozzles can be purchased at the local Home and Garden center.

Thatch

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Thatch is the layer of living and dead stems, roots, and crowns that forms a type of blanket over the soil of your lawn. A small amount of thatch (one-half inch or less) is acceptable and even good for the lawn. But when thatch accumulates to over one-half inch, it can become one of a lawn's most serious enemies.

Keeps out the good and protects the bad

Like an old-time thatched roof, the thatch on your lawn creates a barrier which prevents the free movement of water, air, fertilizer, and insect controls into the soil. Since thatch is an ideal breeding ground for many diseases and turf-destroying insects, a heavy thatch layer can quickly become a serious problem.

Grass clippings not to blame

Contrary to popular belief, grass clippings are not the prime cause of thatch build-up. Clippings are almost all water. Once dried, clippings add very little bulk to the thatch layer. Thatch is mainly made up of the heavier crowns, stems and roots. Clippings of moderate length can be left on the lawn without fear of quickly increasing the thatch layer.

Reduces lawn care effectiveness

Heavy thatch prevents fertilizer and water from reaching the grass roots. This can result in a lawn that is thin, off-color, and prone to disease, insect, and drought problems.

You have two choices.

You can ignore the thatch, and hope it will decay before it does any harm. However, a thatch problem will almost always get worse with time, not better.

The second alternative, the option we most often recommend, is core aeration because it offers the least amount of disturbance to the healthy plants.

Crabgrass

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Crabgrass is an annual weed. This means it dies completely every year and sprouts new from seed produced the year before. A healthy crabgrass plant produces up to 4,000 seeds during its short one-season life.

Why it's such a problem

Crabgrass is a very fast-growing plant. It has to be because it only has one season to live. Since it grows so fast, it can choke out slower-growing permanent grasses in your lawn. Once crabgrass gets a foothold, a cycle of summer crabgrass followed by winter weeds begins, leaving patches of bare dirt in the seasons in between.

Stopping the invasion

To get crabgrass under control, a thick stand of desirable grass has to be established. To do this in one season, the best approach is to concentrate on eliminating the crabgrass through the spring and summer. Use of pre-emergents (to stop the seed from sprouting) or post-emergents (to eliminate the plants once they germinate), or a combination of both is the best way to do this. Plan your seeding for late summer or early fall, and try to establish the new grass soon enough to mow it two to five times during the fall. Then an application of pre-emergent the following spring will be effective against any crabgrass, without harming your new turf.

Watering

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Common errors.

The most common error committed by people is light irrigation. Too little water too often encourages a multitude of problems such as shallow root system. The need for watering depends mainly on your soil and of course, the weather.

Rainfall is no guarantee.

Light showers merely wet the surface. Short down pours do the same. Most of the water is lost in runoff before it can soak in.

How much water is needed?

A lawn will use as much as two inches per week in hot, dry weather — a fraction of that when it is cooler. If you decide your lawn needs water, you should put on enough to wet the entire root zone.

When is the best time?

If you can, avoid late afternoon or evening irrigation. Grass that stays wet for a long time favors development of diseases. However, do not avoid watering at these times if this is the only time you can water. The important thing is water. Avoiding late afternoons is secondary to providing the needed water. In heavy clay soils prevent watering to the full amount at one time, frequent watering is then necessary.

Growing Grass In Shade

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Grass plants have four basic needs

In order to survive they need light, air, water, and nurtrients. In other words, you need sufficient amounts of L.A.W.N. in order to have a full, healthy lawn. Even if one of these basic needs is not met, the grass may begin to decline and eventually die.

The problem we come across, in many older landscapes, is heavy shade caused by large trees. Trying to maintain turf in these areas is very difficult and often times impossible due to the lack of one or all the ingredients in L.A.W.N.

Light

The lack of light is the most obvious problem that shade creates. Turf requires 3-4 hours per day to remain thick and healthy. Lawns receiving less than this tend to be thin and weak.

Air

Although air is available in shade areas, location of trees or the amount of trees in the yard can create a problem with sufficient air movement or circulation. This can cause excess dampness, which can lead to disease or fungus activity.

Water

Between 1-2” of water each week throughout the growing season is required for a healthy lawn. The lack of rain is a problem because the tree will act as an umbrella and not allow rain to get to the ground. Because of this, the soil under the tree does not receive adequate moisture or valuable nutrients that rain provides.

Nutrients

The nutrients that do reach the turf, either by rain or fertilization, are being taken up by the roots of the tree as well as the turf roots. A complete soil test will show the nutritional make up of your soil and will determine the type of fertilizer required for your situation. (See our seasonal tip about soil testing.)

Here are a few tips on how to possibly improve the situation:

Do you need the tree?

Often times, too many trees were planted because people did not realize how big they would be when full grown.

Thin the tree

You can thin the tree by removing some inner branches or raise the canopy by removing some lower branches.

Add some topsoil

Tree roots are near and often on the surface not allowing enough soil for turf plants to grow. They’re also robbing the plants of valuable nutrients.

Reseed

Only after doing some or all of these other things, loosen the soil with a rake and reseed. Some varieties of grass do better than others, so be sure to read the labels and stay away from annual varieties.

Reminder

Whenever you do any seeding, be sure to keep soil damp by watering daily for about 3-4 weeks. You may have to water more often each day depending on the type of soil you have. You can cut back to weekly watering once you establish good turf growth.

Soil Testing

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Whether you are trying to establish a lawn or simply maintain an existing one, you need to first know what condition the soil is in. The success or failure of any crop, from corn to turf grass, can be linked directly to the health of the soil in which it is growing. Without the proper nutrient levels in the soil, plants will be unable to thrive and remain healthy.

A complete soil test should be done in order to determine your soils pH and nutrient levels. This is done by pulling several soil cores from throughout the lawn area. Remove the cores at a depth of about 1-2 inches, then remove any thatch from them and put them in a bag or other suitable container for shipment. Once the sample is collected, send it to a qualified laboratory for testing.

Your local extension agent can usually provide you with a listing of qualified labs for this type of work. Once you receive your test results, you can then determine your fertilization requirements as well as any additional soil amendment requirements, such as lime, that may be needed.

Most fertilizers for home lawns contain 3 major nutrients, nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, all of which are necessary for good plant health. Each of these nutrients are responsible for different portions of the plants development. If your soil is lacking in one or more of these nutrients , you may see a decline in the health or vigor of your turf.

At One Step, we believe so strongly in the importance of soil testing, we have made this the foundation of our exclusive "Natural Care Plus" lawn care program. We begin each of our full service customers with a complete soil test for their lawn. Once we know the pH and nutrient levels of each individual lawn, we can then tailor our program to deliver exactly what is required for optimum turf growth and development.

Planting Trees and Shrubs

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Think of the tree you just purchased as a lifetime investment. How well your tree and investment grows depends on the type of tree and location you select for planting, the care you provide when the tree is planted, and the follow-up care the tree receives after planting.

Planting the Tree

The ideal time to plant trees and shrubs is during the dormant season—fall after leafdrop or early spring before bud-break. Weather conditions are cool and allow plants to establish roots in the new location before spring rains and summer heat stimulate new top growth. However, trees properly cared for in the nursery or garden center, and given the appropriate care during transport to prevent damage, can be planted throughout the growing season. In either situation, proper handling during planting is essential to ensure a healthy future for new trees and shrubs. Before you begin planting your tree, be sure you have had all underground utilities located prior to digging.

If the tree you are planting is balled and burlapped, or bare rooted, it is important to understand that the tree's root system has been reduced by 90-95% of its original size during transplanting. As a result of the trauma caused by the digging process, trees will commonly exhibit what it knows as "transplant shock" (TS). TS is indicated by slow growth and reduced vigor following transplanting. Proper site preparation before and during planting, coupled with good follow-up care will reduce the amount of time that plant experiences TS and will allow the tree to quickly establish in its new location. Carefully follow eight simple steps and you can significantly reduce the stress placed on the plant at the time of planting.

A: 2-4" layer of mulch

B: Keep mulch 2-3" back from trunk

C: Cut burlap and rope away from top third of root ball

D: Trunk flare — keep visible

E: Use two opposing, flexible ties — when staking is necessary

F: Gently pack back-fill, using water to settle soil around root ball

G: Set ball on firmly packed soil to prevent settling

1. Dig a shallow, broad planting hole.

Make the hole wide, as much as three times the diameter of the root ball, but only as deep as the root ball. It is important to make the hold wide because the tree roots on the newly establishing tree must push through surrounding soil to establish. On most planting sites in new developments, the existing soils have been compacted and are unsuitable for healthy root growth. Breaking up the soil in a large area around the tree provides the newly emerging roots room to expand into loose soil to hasten establishment.

2. Identify the trunk flare.

The trunk flare is where the roots spread at the base of the tree. This point should be partially visible after the tree has been planted (see diagram). If the trunk flare is not partially visible, you may have to remove some soil from the top of the root ball. Find it so you can determine how deep the hole needs to be for proper planting.

3. Place the tree at the proper height.

Before placing the tree in the hole, check to see that the hole has been dug to the proper depth, and no more. The majority of the roots on the newly planted tree will develop in the top 12" of soil. If the tree is planted too deep, new roots will have difficulty developing due to a lack of oxygen. It is better to plant the tree a little high, 1-2" above the base of the trunk flare, than to plant it at or below the original growing level. This will allow for some settling (see diagram). To avoid damage when setting the tree in the hole, always lift the tree by the root ball, and never by the trunk.

4. Straighten the tree in the hole.

Before you begin backfilling have someone view the tree from several directions to confirm the tree is straight. Once you begin backfilling it is difficult to reposition.

5. Fill the hole, gently but firmly.

Fill the hole about 1/3 full and gently but firmly pack the soil around the base of the root ball. Then, if the tree is balled and burlapped, cut and remove the string and wire from around the trunk and top 1/3 of the root ball (see diagram). Be careful not to damage the trunk or roots in the process.

Fill the remainder of the hole taking care to firmly pack soil to eliminate air pockets that may cause roots to dry out. To avoid this problem, add the soil a few inches at a time and settle with water. Continue this process until the hole is filled and the tree is firmly planted. It is not recommended to apply fertilizer at the time of planting.

6. Stake the tree, if necessary.

If the tree is grown and dug properly at the nursery staking for support is not necessary in most home landscape situations. Studies have shown that trees will establish more quickly and develop stronger trunk root systems if they are not staked at the time of planting. However, protective staking may be required on sites where lawn mower damage, vandalism or windy conditions are concerns. If staking is necessary for support, two stakes used in conjunction with a wide flexible tie material will hold the tree upright, provide flexibility, and minimize injury to the trunk (see diagram). Remove support staking and ties after the first year of growth. Leave protective staking in place as long as necessary.

7. Mulch the base of the tree.

Mulch is simply organic matter applied to the area at the base of the tree. It acts as a blanket to hold moisture, protect against harsh soil temperatures, both hot and cold, and reduces competition from grass and weeds. Some good choices are leaf litter, pine straw, shredded bark, peat moss, and wood chips. A two to four inch layer is ideal. More than four inches may cause a problem with gas exchange. When placing mulch, care should be taken so that the actual trunk of the tree is not covered. This may cause decay of the living bark at the base of the tree. A mulch free area, one to two inches wide at the base of the tree, is sufficient to avoid moist bark conditions and prevent decay.

8. Follow-up care.

Keep the soil moist but not soaked, overwatering will cause leaves to turn yellow or fall off. Water trees at least once a week, barring rain, and more frequently during hot weather. When the soil is dry below the surface of the mulch, it is time to water. Continue until mid-fall tapering off for lower temperatures that require less frequent watering.

Other follow-up care may include minor pruning of branches damaged during the planting process. Prune sparingly immediately after planting, and wait to begin necessary corrective pruning until after a full season of growth in the new location.

After you've completed these eight simple steps, further routine care and favorable weather conditions will ensure that your new tree or shrub will grow and thrive. A valuable asset to any landscape, trees provide a long-lasting source of beauty and enjoyment for people of all ages. When questions arise about the care of your tree, be sure to consult One Step for assistance.

Trees and Turf

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We’ve all seen thinning grass under large shade trees; large surface tree roots that cause safety hazards and mowing obstacles; young trees that don’t seem to grow; and tree trunks badly damaged by lawn mowers or string trimmers. All of these undesirable affects can be caused by trees and turf growing too closely together.

Woody plants and turfgrasses are both critical components of design plans for homes, offices and parks. Trees and turf offer distinct personal, functional, and environmental benefits. Personal preferences for color, fragrance and form should complement the functional properties of size, shape, density, and placement of plant material.

Turfgrasses provide many of the same environmental benefits as trees. They (1) change carbon dioxide into the oxygen we breathe; (2) cool the air by changing water into water vapor; (3) stabilize dust; (4) entrap air polluting gases; and (5) control erosion.
Turfgrasses, in addition to being environmentally beneficial, are attractive in formal and informal designs. There are many advantages to combining trees and turf in the landscape.

Selection

When trees and turf are used in the same areas, extra attention must be given to plant material selection in addition to the usual hardiness, climatic and soil needs. An effort should be made to make the trees and lawn compatible. Grass is generally a sun-loving plant. Most grass species will not grow well in areas that get less than 50 percent open sunlight; however, new varieties with improved shade tolerance are being introduced. Consult your garden center specialist or sod producer for recommendations of shade-tolerant grasses for your area.

In areas where the lawn is the primary design feature, select woody plants that do the least damage to grass growth and maintenance. The woody plants should be small, have an open canopy (trees that allow sunlight to penetrate to the ground) or have a high canopy. Select trees that do not root near the soil surface; surface rooting is most serious where a shallow topsoil is present. Remember, tree roots get larger as the tree gets older.

Competition

Trees, shrubs, ground covers, and lawn grasses all require sunlight, water and rooting space for growth. Each plant in the landscape competes with the neighboring plant regardless of types or species. Some even produce chemicals that are exuded from roots to restrict growth of nearby plants. For each plant to do well, it must have adequate space. Since perennial woody plants increase in size each year, they require additional space over time. The landscape design should provide adequate space for these plants.

While shade may be the greatest negative, tree-related influence on turf growth, tree roots also create problems. Contrary to general thinking, most tree roots are in the top three feet of soil. More importantly, the majority of fine, absorbing roots are in the top six inches of soil. While grass roots ordinarily occupy a much greater percentage of the soil volume than the tree roots and out-compete them for water and nutrients, especially around young trees, grass root density is often much lower in areas where trees were established first. In these situations, tree roots compete much better for water and nutrients and prevent or reduce the success of establishing new turf.
Competition is especially important when transplanting, seeding or sodding. The newest plant in the area must be given special treatment and must receive adequate water, nutrients and sunlight. This frequently means that competing sod should be removed from around transplanted trees and shrubs, or that some of the lower branches should be removed from existing trees above a newly sodded lawn.
Mulching is an alternative to turf around trees and its use eliminates potential competition. A 2 to 4 inch layer of wood chips, bark or other organic material over the tree rooting space is recommended because it: (1) helps to retain soil moisture; (2) helps to reduce weeds and control grass; (3) increases soil fertility when mulch decomposes; (4) improves appearance; (5) protects the trunk from injuries caused by mowing equipment and trimmers that often result in serious tree damage or death; and (6) improves soil structure (better aeration, temperature and moisture conditions).

Maintenance practices

Maintenance practices for trees and turf are different and treatment of one can unintentionally damage the other. Because tree and grass roots exist together in the upper 6 to 8 inches of the topsoil, treatment of one may damage the other. Fertilizer applied to one plant will also be absorbed by the roots of a nearby plant. Normally this is good; but excessive fertilization of either trees or turf can result in tree-crown or grass-blade growth greater than that desired.

Trees and shrubs are broadleaved plants as are most weeds in lawns. Many herbicides or weed killers that are used in turf can cause severe damage to trees when misapplied. This can occur on windy days causing the drift to fall on non-target plants or on hot days when the herbicide may vaporize and diffuse into the air. While most herbicides do not kill tree roots, some, such as soil sterilants and a few others do. Herbicides that can cause tree damage have statements on their labels warning against using the product “near trees.”

Problems can also result from misuse of other pesticides and fertilizers. Label instructions should be followed precisely, and pesticides/foliar fertilizers should not be applied on windy days. Consult your garden center staff for advice on pesticide selection and use.

Watering of lawns is beneficial to trees if the watering is done correctly. Trees need the equivalent of one inch of rain every seven to ten days. Applying frequent, shallow watering does not properly meet the needs of either trees or turf and can be harmful to both.

Turf growing under or near trees should be mowed at the top of its recommended mowing height. Mowing off no more than one-third of the grass blade’s height and letting the clippings remain on the lawn will do much to ensure a healthy and vigorous lawn. In an ideal situation, tree and turf maintenance would be handled by the same individual in order to maximize the benefits of all maintenance practices.

Special situations

Construction damage prior to lawn establishment.

Compaction of topsoil containing tree roots by heavy equipment kills more trees around homes than disease organisms. Compaction is greatest when the soil is wet. Consult a tree care expert about tree protection prior to home construction projects.

Fill dirt around existing trees.

Fill dirt is frequently added around existing mature trees so that a level or more visually desirable lawn can be established. Fill dirt changes the ratio of oxygen to carbon dioxide around tree roots and the roots may die. Consult a tree care expert before adding fill constructing soil wells around tree trunks.

Establishing lawns around existing trees.

Preparation of a seedbed for lawns requires disruption of the upper 4 to 6 inches of topsoil. This soil contains the feeder roots of trees. Damage to tree roots often results in declining tree tops.

Tree root buffers created with turf.

A sufficiently wide strip of turfgrass between trees and hard surfaces such as building foundations, sidewalks and roads can help to reduce the potential damage caused by tree roots as well as provide an area where water and nutrients can soak into the soil and be beneficial to both turf and trees.

Lawn watering in arid sites.

Homes are sometimes built in woodlots. In the West, this is especially damaging when dryland trees encounter watering required to maintain grass. Excess water at the tree trunk encourages growth of fungi that can kill trees.

Numerous other special situations exist. Sod producers, arborists or garden center operators will have suggestions for correcting or alleviating problems that may arise concerning trees and turf.

Think turfgrass growing around trunk-scarred, weak trees need not be a common sight in the landscape. With proper preplanning, proper plant selection and placement, and reasonable management, the many and varied benefits of both trees and turf can be readily achieved.

Landscape In Drought Conditions

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Landscape Plants

Common symptoms of inadequate water for trees and shrubs include leaf scorch, wilting, premature coloration and leaf drop. The consequence of all of this is a reduction in carbohydrate production, leaving the plants experiencing stress and becoming more susceptible to damage by insects and diseases. In addition, if plants are stressed in the fall they are more susceptible to winter freezing damage and dieback.

Steps you can take during drought situations.

1. Irrigate plants thoroughly. Recently transplanted woody plants need special attention due to their limited root systems. During periods of prolonged drought even established plants need to be irrigated. Water slowly in order to percolate down into the soil rather than run off the surface. Containers that hold water and let moisture slowly trickle out can make this process easier. A commercially available product called a Treegater® does the job, as does a large plastic bucket with small holes drilled in the bottom or a soaker hose.

2. Mulch plants with a 2 to 4 inch layer of organic material (shredded bark, bark nuggets, wood chips, etc.) to conserve soil moisture, reduce weed problems and improve soil structure.

3. Inspect all plants for insect and disease problems and manage them as necessary.

4. Prune out dead branches immediately.

5. Do not fertilize. If fertilization is necessary, wait until adequate soil moisture is present to avoid fertilizer burn.

Mulching

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Benefits:

Improves soil structure
Adds organic matter
Aerates
Retains soil moisture by reducing soil water loss
Encourages root development
Suppresses weeds
Protects against temperature extremes
Reduces erosion

Types:

Organic mulch

Shredded pine bark, cedar, wood chips
As they decompose, they add beneficial organic matter to the soil

Hard

Mineral base, stone, brick chips, lava rock
Tend not to blow around
Generates heat

Proper technique:

Proper depth should be 2-4", over mulching can lead to plant suffocation.

Never bury stems or pile mulch up against the trunks of trees and shrubs.

This holds moisture in the wrong place leading to rot, decay, dieback and even plant death. Trunk flares should always be visible.

Leave an area of approximately 2-3" around the base of the plants clear of any mulch.

Make mulch donuts, not mulch volcanoes.

Economic Benefits

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Individual trees and shrubs have value, but the variability of species, size, condition, and function makes determining their economic value difficult. The economic benefits of trees can be both direct and indirect. Direct economic benefits are usually associated with energy costs. Air-conditioning costs are lower in a tree-shaded home. Heating costs are reduced when a home has a windbreak. Trees increase in value from the time they are planted until they mature. Trees are a wise investment of funds because landscaped homes are more valuable than nonlandscaped homes. The savings in energy costs and the increase in property value directly benefit each home owner. The indirect economic benefits of trees are even greater. These benefits are available to the community or region. Lowered electricity bills are paid by customers when power companies are able to use less water in their cooling towers, build fewer new facilities to meet peak demands, use reduced amounts of fossil fuel in their furnaces, and use fewer measures to control air pollution. Communities also can save money if fewer facilities must be built to control storm water in the region. To the individual, these savings are small, but to the community, reductions in these expenses are often in the thousands of dollars.

Trees Require an Investment

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Trees provide numerous aesthetic and economic benefits but also incur some costs. You need to be aware that an investment is required for your trees to provide the benefits that you desire. The biggest cost of trees and shrubs occurs when they are purchased and planted. Initial care almost always includes some watering. Leaf, branch, and whole tree removal and disposal can be expensive.

To function well in the landscape, trees require maintenance. Much can be done by the informed home owner. Corrective pruning and mulching gives trees a good start. Shade trees, however, quickly grow to a size that may require the services of a professional arborist. Arborists have the knowledge and equipment needed to prune, spray, fertilize, and otherwise maintain a large tree. Your garden center owner, university extension agent, community forester, or consulting arborist can answer questions about tree maintenance, suggest treatments, or recommend qualified arborists.

Environmental Benefits

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Trees alter the environment in which we live by moderating climate, improving air quality, conserving water, and harboring wildlife. Climate control is obtained by moderating the effects of sun, wind, and rain. Radiant energy from the sun is absorbed or deflected by leaves on deciduous trees in the summer and is only filtered by branches of deciduous trees in winter. We are cooler when we stand in the shade of trees and are not exposed to direct sunlight. In winter, we value the sun’s radiant energy. Therefore, we should plant only small or deciduous trees on the south side of homes.

Wind speed and direction can be affected by trees. The more compact the foliage on the tree or group of trees, the greater the influence of the windbreak. The downward fall of rain, sleet, and hail is initially absorbed or deflected by trees, which provides some protection for people, pets, and buildings. Trees intercept water, store some of it, and reduce storm runoff and the possibility of flooding.

Dew and frost are less common under trees because less radiant energy is released from the soil in those areas at night.

Temperature in the vicinity of trees is cooler than that away from trees. The larger the tree, the greater the cooling. By using trees in the cities, we are able to moderate the heat-island effect caused by pavement and buildings in commercial areas.

Air quality can be improved through the use of trees, shrubs, and turf. Leaves filter the air we breathe by removing dust and other particulates. Rain then washes the pollutants to the ground. Leaves absorb carbon dioxide from the air to form carbohydrates that are used in the plant’s structure and function. In this process, leaves also absorb other air pollutants—such as ozone, carbon monoxide, and sulfur dioxide—and give off oxygen.

By planting trees and shrubs, we return to a more natural, less artificial environment. Birds and other wildlife are attracted to the area. The natural cycles of plant growth, reproduction, and decomposition are again present, both above and below ground. Natural harmony is restored to the urban environment.

Communal Benefits

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Even though trees may be private property, their size often makes them part of the community as well. Because trees occupy considerable space, planning is required if both you and your neighbors are to benefit. With proper selection and maintenance, trees can enhance and function on one property without infringing on the rights and privileges of neighbors.

City trees often serve several architectural and engineering functions. They provide privacy, emphasize views, or screen out objectionable views. They reduce glare and reflection. They direct pedestrian traffic. They provide background to and soften, complement, or enhance architecture.

Social Benefits

2008-05-31T22:46:00.000-07:00

We like trees around us because they make life more pleasant. Most of us respond to the presence of trees beyond simply observing their beauty. We feel serene, peaceful, restful, and tranquil in a grove of trees. We are “at home” there. Hospital patients have been shown to recover from surgery more quickly when their hospital room offered a view of trees. The strong ties between people and trees are most evident in the resistance of community residents to removing trees to widen streets. Or we note the heroic efforts of individuals and organizations to save particularly large or historic trees in a community.

The stature, strength, and endurance of trees give them a cathedral-like quality. Because of their potential for long life, trees frequently are planted as living memorials. We often become personally attached to trees that we or those we love have planted.

2008-05-31T22:45:00.001-07:00

Most trees and shrubs in cities or communities are planted to provide beauty or shade. These are two excellent reasons for their use. Woody plants also serve many other purposes, and it often is helpful to consider these other functions when selecting a tree or shrub for the landscape. The benefits of trees can be grouped into social, communal, environmental, and economic categories.

St Helena gumwood

2008-05-18T09:26:00.000-07:00

Common Name: St Helena gumwood
Scientific Name: Commidendrum robustum
Categories: National
Conservation Status: Endangered

Introduction

National tree of St Helena.

Commidendrum robustum grows to a height of five to eight metres. It has a highly branching structure that forks low and produces an umbrella-like canopy. White flower heads droop from the ends of branches.

Why is this species important?

C. robustum is one of fourteen globally threatened and endemic tree species occurring on St Helena. This species was designated as St Helena's national tree in 1977. To help act as a symbol of the island's conservation and community spirit, a native forest of C. robustum was planted to mark the Millennium. The endemic plants of St Helena are of great biogeographical significance and provide the habitat for equally rare and unusual animal species. The gumwoods are known to be hosts for many endemic invertebrates, particularly weevils.

Where is it found?

C. robustum is found only on the sub-tropical island of St Helena in the South Atlantic, located 1,960 km from the south-west coast of Africa and 2,900 km east of South America. The area of St Helena is just 122 km². C. robustum woodland once stretched across one-third of the island at an altitude of 300-600m. The only woodland now remaining is at Peak Dale where about 1,000 trees grow on an area of 3 ha of steep slopes. There are smaller, scattered populations at Deep Valley (21 trees), Marias (<5>How do people use it?

C. robustum has been an important source of timber since the island was settled by humans in 1659. The timber has been used for fuel and building. Although not used today, with its highly branched nature and dense hard, fine grain the wood has the potential to be of local value in the future if it can be managed sustainably, as a windbreak, as a source of pollen for honey production, and for high value products for the tourism industry. One local carpenter has already established a small experimental plantation to provide wood for craftwork in the future.

Why is it threatened?

C. robustum is threatened primarily by the impacts of human activities. Since settling the island, humans have used C. robustum for timber and firewood. Forests have also been cleared for pasture. The introduction of goats and other browsing livestock to the island led to severe overgrazing and prevented regeneration. It is likely that timber shortages became apparent so quickly because the browsing of goats had been killing young trees for 150 years, so that the more accessible parts of the forests were in a senile state when later settlers arrived. In 1991 the Peak Dale C. robustum was attacked by the jacaranda bug Orthezia insignis, a sucking insect that takes the sap from trees. This threatened to devastate the remaining population until a biological control agent, a ladybird Hyperaspis pantherina, was introduced from Kenya.

What conservation action is needed?

A programme of conservation for C. robustum forests has operated since the mid 1980s, although lack of continuity and limited local resources have limited progress. Efforts at Peak Dale have included fencing off the site to prevent damage from browsing sheep and cattle, controlling the growth of exotic weeds and planting young trees, often with the help of school groups and volunteers. A programme of replanting has been in operation at Horse Plain Point. The Millennium Gumwood Forest Project has resulted in the planting of over 4,000 trees in a previously barren and degraded wasteland. The area was originally part of the 600 ha Great Wood that was lost through deforestation in the 18th and 19th centuries. C. robustum has also been established behind High Peak, at Pounceys, along the golf course and in the grounds of many of the island's first and middle schools.Attention is also being focused on small and disjunct wild populations that have either been attacked by the jacaranda bug or heavily invaded by alien plant species such as flax Phormium tenax , black olive Olea africana and ink, Cestrum laevigatum. Weeds have been cleared at a number of sites and gumwoods replanted to restock affected populations. Seeds have been collected from different populations and seedlings are being grown in nurseries ready for planting back into different sites.
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Sideroxylon marginata

2008-05-18T09:05:00.000-07:00

Common Name: el marmulano
Scientific Name: Sideroxylon marginata
Categories: Timber, Endangered
Conservation Status: Endangered (Unassessed Globally)

Where is it found?

The species is endemic to the Cape Verde Islands: Sto. Antão, S. Vicente, S. Nicolau, Boavista, Santiago, Fogo and Brava. In 1935, Chevalier collected and observed it on various locations where it no longer exists. Today the species is only found growing on steep cliffs and it is unknown which plant communities S. marginata may have been associated with.

How do people use it?

The tree has hardy wood and makes good quality firewood.

Why is it threatened?

In the Red Data Book of Cape Verde (Leyens & Lobin (eds.) 1996) S. marginata is classified as "Endangered", many populations consisting of only a few individuals. It is at severe risk of extinction on the islands of S. Vicente, S. Nicolau, Santiago and Brava and is classified as Critically Endangered. Where humans have access to the tree populations, the number of individuals continues to decline. Due to human pressure on the islands of S. Vicente, S. Nicolau, Santiago and Brava, these populations are described as ‘relictual’.

What conservation action is needed?

The main populations of the species are in one or more protected areas on the island and national law protects the species from picking and uprooting. Efforts have been made on the island to make people aware of the plant and the need for its conservation.

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Quercus hintonii

2008-05-18T08:59:00.000-07:00

Common Name: Encino of Hinton, Hinton's Oak
Scientific Name: Quercus hintonii
Categories: Timber, endangered
Conservation Status: Critically endangered

Introduction

A deciduous small tree that grows up to 15 m in height and occurs in sub-montane to montane dry forest in Mexico. It has a dark bark and is characterized by bright red foliage in early spring.

Why is this species important?

This species represents one of the Quercus species considered of great importance in Mexico. Habitat of Q. hintonii has been seriously destroyed and reduced, undermining the viability of the species. Q. hintonii wood has a variety of local uses, being part of the traditional culture of Tejupilco people.

Where is it found?

Q. hintonii is endemic to Mexico, occurring in the south-east of Mexico State between 1300 and 2000 m. A recent study by the Sir Harold Hillier Gardens and Arboretum together with the University of Puebla has determined that this species covers just 46 000 hectares, distributed across three highly disturbed populations.

How do people use it?

Q. hintonii wood is used locally for tool handles, beams and fencing poles, but primarily for firewood. The wood is traditionally used to bake "las finas" bread, the characteristic taste of which is imparted by the smoke.

Why is it threatened?

The populations of Q. hintonii have been dramatically reduced as a result of habitat loss to the point where the species is considered in danger of extinction. Agriculture (maize and fruit trees), coffee plantation and road construction have all contributed to the decline in populations. The species has also been highly affected by grazing, which prevents regeneration.

What conservation action is needed?

The recent study as part of the Global Trees Campaign revealed that the current status of Q. hintonii population is strongly associated with the development and economic activities of the local communities. Conservation measures include the involvement of local authorities and landowners, training on plant propagation, field research, and the development of an education campaign.Collaborative research between Mexican experts from the University of Puebla and staff from the Sir Harold Hillier Gardens & Arboretum in the UK has led to the development of a conservation strategy for Quercus hintonii, which was presented to the Regional Education Co-ordinator, the presidents of municipalities and the authorities in charge of reforestation. In addition, an educational guide to the conservation of the species has been produced and an agreement has been reached to provide local training in oak propagation techniques.

Prunus lusitanica ssp. lusitanica

2008-05-06T22:04:00.000-07:00

Common Name: palo de loro
Scientific Name: Prunus lusitanica ssp. lusitanica
Categories: Endangered, Timber
Conservation Status: Endangered

Where is it found?

The only confirmed native location is in Basque France, in the Vallée des Aldudes.

In 2000, a group of 20 to 30 Prunus lusitanica ssp. lusitanica was found at 850m in the vallée d'Ossau, near Bitet, in the Parc national des Pyrénées. This population has not been confirmed to be native, however, it is situated far from any garden or park and appears ‘ancient’ as the group includes an old, dry stump.

This sub-species is also fully naturalised in New Zealand though and is considered a weedy exotic. It is also listed in the Global Compendium of Weeds

Why is it threatened?

The species has an extremely limited range. Areas of the Vallée des Aldudes burned in 1990, however the majority of the individuals seem to have sprouted from the base.

What conservation action is needed?

Prunus lusitanica is fully protected in France (on the National List) by Ministerial decree of 20 January 1982, in which destruction, collection and sale are prohibited. The first locality has not benefited from any particular management. The new locality in the national park will be monitored and management needs prescribed by the park's scientific service.

Pot sam zacot

2008-05-06T22:00:00.000-07:00

Common Name:

Pot sam zacot

Scientific Name:

Tambourissa quadrifida

Conservation Status:

Not assessed

One of 10 endemic Tambourissa species in the country. This species is a striking tree, with cauliflorus flowers coming straight out of the trunk. The male flowers look like small red starfish covered in white paint marks. The female flowers look like a small wooden bell that takes the form of a small pot when it turns into a fruit. The fruit gives the tree its common name of ‘monkey’s chamber pot’ (pot sam zacot). When ripe the walls of the chamber pot open disgorging black seeds covered in bright orange flesh.

Why is this species important?
This species has no commercial value or local use.

Where is it found?
This species is endemic to Mauritius and is found in lowland coastal forest.

Why is it threatened? There probably about 100 individuals of this species. Lowland coastal forest is one of the most threatened forest types in Mauritius. Most individuals of this species are found in a privately owned forest where there are few laws to protect the plants.

What conservation action is being carried out?
None to date.

Pokemeboy

2008-05-06T21:56:00.001-07:00

Common Name: pokemeboy, blackbrush wattle
Scientific Name: Acacia anegadensis
Categories: Endangered
Conservation Status: Critical - CR B1ab(iii,v)+2ab(iii,v)

Why is this species important?

Pokemeboy is confined to an area of 38 km², of which only 25 km² is suitable (terrestrial) habitat. The actual area of occupancy has been estimated as less than 10 km² of limestone. This legume is important for promoting succession of vegetation, as well as providing a suitable habitat and food source for the Anegada iguana, Cyclura pinguis, a species itself numbering less than 200 individuals.

Where is it found?

Pokemeboy is endemic to Anegada Island in the British Virgin Islands (part of the Caribbean island bio-geographic region).

How do people use it?

A dense, thorny evergreen acacia, it is planted for shade, but the roots also physically break the crusts of limestone rock on which it lives, allowing other species to grow and subsequentally increasing fertility.

Why is it threatened?

The island is under extreme pressure for residential and tourism development. This has already resulted in documented habitat fragmentation and loss, leading to a decline in the quality of available habitat. It has been suggested that this will accelerate in the next few years, resulting in a continued decline in the quality of the habitat and a reduction in the number of mature individuals.

Construction of marinas along the coastal areas has been an on-going issue in the BVI, as well as other tourism-related development.

What conservation action is needed?

As part of a year 2000 Darwin Initiative Project on Anegada, a collaborative effort between the BVI National Parks Trust, Fauna and Flora International and the Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, Dr. Mike Gillman of the UK’s Open University is investigating the threats to and rates of regeneration of this species. Gillman has found relatively widespread adult trees, but little regeneration, giving concerns for the long-term survival of the species. Work is continuing and an ex situ population has been established at the JR O’Neal Botanic Garden on Tortola to investigate germination and seedling establishment.

Pilgerodendron uviferum

2008-05-06T02:05:00.000-07:00

Common Name: Cipres de las Guaitecas
Scientific Name: Pilgerodendron uviferum
Categories: Timber, Musical
Conservation Status: Vulnerable

Introduction

Cipres is an endemic evergreen conifer that forms pure and mixed forests. It is characterized by its narrowly pyramidal shape, growing to between 1.5 and 15 m in height, and by its scale-like imbricate leaves in four rows. It is a slow-growth species that may live 400-500 years.

Why is this species important?

Cipres forests form unique ecosystems in the Valdivian, Patagonian and Magellanic rainforests of southern Chile. The timber has been heavily exploited for decades and has great traditional use. In the XI Region of Chile the species has an extensive cultural and historical value, with generations of people linked to the exploitation and trade of the tree.

Where is it found?

P. uvifera occurs in Chile from 39° 30’ to 54° S in the Coastal and Andes Range of Chile. In Argentina it is possible to find this species on the eastern side of the Andes between 41° and 47° S. This species grows in extremely humid sites located in flat places, known as Magellanic moorland.

How do people use it?

Cipres wood is valued for its durability and resistance to decay. This and its straight trunk mean it has been used extensively in all types of construction, especially for beams and boards that are free from defects and knots. In rural areas it is frequently used for bridges, poles, fencing, boats and furniture

Why is it threatened?

Owing to timber cutting, cipres forest have been dramatically degraded and destroyed, particularly in the XI Region. Large-scale destruction of the forest during colonial times and the widespread opening up of the lowland area have led to the extinction of the species from most of its original distribution. Illegal harvesting is still occurring in many forests containing cipres. Extensive fire setting and grazing have prevented regeneration, contributing to the species’ decline. This species was placed on Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), which has reduced international trade.

What conservation action is needed?

The first initiative developed by Universidad Austral de Chile and Corporacion Nacional Forestal was the implementation of a demonstrative pilot of sustainable management and restoration of cipres forest. This activity involved the training of small-scale owners.Taking this initiative as a basis for future development activities, it is very important to promote sustainable management in unprotected areas. This promotion must reach the local forest owners that have used this species for decades. Other important measures include the development of alternative uses for cipres, such as non-timber forest products and eco-tourism. The restoration of degraded cipres forests is other important component that has to be considered in future conservation actions. The Global Trees Campaign is developing an initiative with Universidad Austral de Chile and local organizations to restore, conserve, and manage the remnant forests in the XI Region of Chile. These activities will be essential to provide sustainable tools for the benefit of Pilgerodendron uvifera in Chile.

Philippine teak

2008-04-29T21:48:00.000-07:00

Common Name: Philippine teak
Scientific Name: Tectona philippinensis
Categories: Timber
Conservation Status: Endangered

Introduction

A small tree confined to two areas in the Philippines, which produces a hardwood timber that is highly valued locally.

Why is this species important?

Philippine teak produces a valuable timber used locally and nationally for construction. It is also used locally as firewood. It is one of only three species in the genus Tectona, which includes the commercial teak Tectona grandis, one of the few tropical timbers successfully grown as a plantation crop. Philippine teak may have potential as a genetic resource for future teak breeding programmes aimed at improving supplies of this highly popular wood.

Where is it found?

Philippine teak is only known from Batangas province, Luzon Island and Illing Island, Mindoro, in the Philippines, where it is confined to limestone forest. Recent information suggests that it is found in highly disturbed forest edge, surrounded by agricultural land and degraded forest.

How do people use it?

Philippine teak produces a durable timber used locally for construction, being favoured as posts for housing etc. Trade is mainly domestic rather than international. Immature trees are said to be preferred for building materials, thus threatening the reproductive survival of the population. It is also used as firewood.

Why is it threatened?

Philippine teak is threatened by habitat destruction and over-exploitation for timber and firewood. The forests where it occurs are becoming increasingly small and fragmented as land is cleared for agriculture and other uses. The preference for immature trees for timber is an additional threat, since fewer trees reach reproductive age.

What conservation action is needed?

A conservation programme is needed to re-establish a stable natural population of T. philippinensis in its known habitat. A rapid assessment of the species and long-term ecological research is required to determine the physical and biological characteristics of the habitat, coupled with a recovery and management programme, public education, community consultation and resource stewardship, and policy initiatives. As part of the Global Trees Campaign, FFI has funded a recovery programme for Philippine teak, including all the above elements, led by the Philippine National Museum in Manila. The programme includes meetings with local stakeholders to integrate their concerns into the activities, and work on effective propagation of the tree for replanting. Work has been conducted in local schools to raise awareness of the plight of this rare tree. The programme involves local and regional representatives of the government Department of the Environment and Natural Resources, schools and universities in research, project implementation and monitoring. Attempts are being made to encourage the formulation of local policies for the recovery of the species.

Pericopsis elata

2008-04-29T20:55:00.000-07:00

Common Name: Afrormosia, Assamela
Scientific Name: Pericopsis elata
Categories: Timber
Conservation Status: Endangered

Why is this species important?

Afrormosia is an economically important timber species that is considered an excellent alternative to teak.

Where is it found?
Pericopsis elata is a gregarious species restricted to the drier parts of semi-deciduous forests in Central and West Africa. It has been recorded from Cameroon, Congo Republic, Côte d’Ivoire, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ghana and Nigeria. It is a tree that reaches a height of around 50 m. The trunk is buttressed to about 2.5 m then fluted. It has a maximum diameter of about 2 m.

How do people use it?
This timber species is used for boat building, joinery, flooring and decorative veneers. Italy is the main importing country.

Why is it threatened?
Since 1948 trade in timber from P. elata has soared. Levels of exploitation have been unsustainable in all countries and the species’ habitat has declined. Regeneration is insufficient to replace lost populations. Because of concerns over the level of exploitation, P. elata is listed on Appendix II of CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).

What conservation action is needed?
Illegal logging is a major problem in the countries where P. elata occurs. Improved regulation of the trade is urgently needed. In Cameroon there have been recent prosecutions for exports of the timber in contravention of CITES. The CITES Plants Committee has recommended that P. elata is a priority for the CITES Significant Trade review process. This would help to ensure that exports are at sustainable levels. Certified sustainable forest management to Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) standards in areas where P. elata is harvested should be the goal. In Ghana a programme of enrichment planting has been undertaken. This aims to increase the stock of valuable species such as P. elata. It is seen as an artificial regeneration method that is being used to supplement natural regeneration. Enrichment planting plots were established in several areas between 1975 and 1978. P. elata is also one species where trials have been established with the aim of conserving the gene pool and providing a basis for afforestation programmes. In situ conservation of P. elata in forest protected areas is a priority need for the species.

Pau brasil

2008-04-29T20:42:00.000-07:00

Common Name: Pau brasil, Pernambuco
Scientific Name: Caesalpinia echinata
Categories: Musical; National
Conservation Status: Endangered

National tree of Brazil, Caesalpinia echinata, commonly known in Brazil as pau brasil, gave its name to the country. Years of harvesting and reduction of the Atlantic Coastal Forest have reduced this species to the verge of extinction. Exploitation still continues, however, because its extremely dense hardwood is ideal for making bows for stringed musical instruments. It is also know as brasileto, ibirapitanga, orabutá, pau pernambuco, and pau rosado.

Why is this species important?

Pau brasil is the national tree of Brazil, the country to which it gave its name, and has strong cultural links to Brazil’s social and economic history. In the coastal forest ecosystems of Brazil it has been noted as an important habitat for orchids and other epiphytes. The species is famous for the dye extract taken from the heartwood, although synthetic dyes have now reduced this trade. The timber is highly valued by musical instrument makers for the manufacture of bows for stringed instruments.

Where is it found?

Pau brasil is confined to the Atlantic Coastal Forest of Brazil, an ecosystem recognized as a global biodiversity hotspot. It inhabits coastal regions with open forest and well-drained soils. Detailed information on the present geographical distribution of pau brasil is scarce, but in the last ten years remnant populations have been found in nine Brazilian states. The species is recorded in reserves in Bahia and Pernambuco. Determining the previous range of the species is also problematic because there are errors in the literature caused by incorrect identification and confusion with other related species.

How do people use it?

In the past, pau brasil was exploited for the dye that could be extracted from the heartwood. The exploitation of the dyewood dates back to 1501, the original collectors being called brasileiros. Until the mid-nineteenth century the dyewood was exported in huge quantities. Today, the bark and dye extract are used locally for medicinal purposes, and research is being undertaken to determine if the bark can be used to treat cancer.Traditionally pau brasil wood was also used to make hunting tools. The hard, compact timber is almost indestructible and was commercially harvested for use as a construction timber, in cabinet making and craftwork. It is still exported for the manufacture of bows for stringed instruments. During bow manufacture the wood must undergo shaping by heat and water, and then be able to retain the bend after being straightened by the pressure of the bow. It must therefore have the correct density, a straight grain with no knots, and must also be a suitable colour. Other woods have been used to construct bows in the past, but are thought to be of much lower quality.

Why is it threatened?

The extensive collection and export of the dyewood from pau brasil trees resulted in the loss of large areas of forest and the enslavement of local people. By the time synthetic dyes to replace it became available in 1875, dramatic population declines in the tree had already taken place, and these declines continued until the 1920s. Natural stands were almost completely destroyed but some populations remained in a few areas on the coastal plain, where they have since suffered from deforestation. Even after the dye was replaced with synthetic alternatives, exploitation of the timber continued. Timber is still highly sought after by bow manufacturers. There are no reliable figures for the amount of wood currently exported, but the annual world demand is likely to exceed 200 m3. The problem is exacerbated by the high level of wood wasted during processing; between 70-80 percent is lost as logs are converted to bow blanks, and a further 70-80 percent is lost in processing these into bows. Clear felling and logging also threaten the natural habitats of pau brasil, and utilisation by local people may be having a detrimental impact on the population levels

What conservation action is needed?

Pau brasil is listed on the official list of threatened Brazilian plants by the government wildlife agency IBAMA, and there is currently a reintroduction programme for pau brasil at Linareas Reserve. In 1997 FFI, with the Botanical Gardens of Rio de Janeiro and the Margaret Mee Foundation, convened a meeting to develop an action plan for the conservation and management of pau brasil. Agreement was reached amongst all participants on the recommended actions relating to different aspects of conservation and sustainable use. As part of the Global Trees Campaign, FFI is currently supporting education and public awareness about the conservation of this flagship species and will be working again with the Rio Botanical Gardens and the Margaret Mee Foundation to carry out a more detailed study into the distribution and conservation requirements of this species.

Palmiste bouclé

2008-04-28T21:06:00.000-07:00

Common Name: Palmiste bouclé
Scientific Name: Tectiphiala ferox
Conservation Status: Critically Endangered (CR) A1ac+2ce, B1+2e, C1+2ab, D ver 2.3 (1994)

A palm of the uplands with enormous spines that protect the palm heart from predation. One of three palm species native to Mauritius and harvested for its palm heart There are less than 20 adult palmiste bouclé in the wild.

Why is this species important?
The tree has no commercial value

Where is it found?
Tectiphiala is a monospecific genus endemic to Mauritius. It is found in the upland forest in the south west of the island.

Why is it threatened?
In the past the tree was harvested for its heart, a local delicacy. Harvesting from the wild does not occur any more although there is no specific legislation to prevent this.

There is no regeneration of this species in the wild. Fruits are eaten by monkeys and pigs (even within conservation management areas) and successful establishment of seeds is limited by seed predators and competition from weeds.

What conservation action is being carried out?
Seeds from the palm are collected and plants grown in the government nursery. So far several plants have been reintroduced successfully to Conservation Management Areas.

Nubian Dragon Tree

2008-04-27T22:11:00.000-07:00

Common Name: Nubian Dragon Tree
Scientific Name: Dracaena ombet
Categories: Timber, Medicinal
Conservation Status: Endangered - EN A1cd

Why is this species important ??????

This is one of the few species that can survive the extensive periods of drought in all parts of its range and is likely to therefore be an important part of the desert ecosystem. The mature fruits are eaten and, if similar to other species, the sap and fruit may also have medicinal properties.

Where is it found?
Djibouti, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sudan, Uganda.
A once widespread and abundant species, it has experienced population declines throughout its range. Scattered individuals remain in inaccessible areas. The populations on the Red Sea Hills and Jebel Elba in Sudan and Egypt are particularly threatened.

How do people use it?
The fruits are eaten and the sap may have medicinal properties like that of D. draco. The wood, however, is loose, fibrous and therefore unsuitable for building or charcoal.

Why is it threatened?
Overgrazing and droughts have contributed to a marked decline in living memory, however, there are no studies into these losses so exact reasons are unknown.

What conservation action is needed?
Research programmes have been initiated in Sudan and Egypt, investigating the ecology, distribution and threats to the species. Once these initial data have been compiled, a conservation strategy can look into appropriate techniques for reintroduction and restoration.

Monkey puzzle

2008-04-27T17:31:00.001-07:00

Common Name: Monkey puzzle
Scientific Name: Araucaria araucana
Categories: Endangered; Sacred; National; Timber
Conservation Status: Vulnerable

Introduction

National Tree of Chile.

Many people are familiar with the monkey puzzle tree. There is at least one in every botanical garden in Europe. This endemic evergreen conifer species grows naturally in temperate rainforests of south central Chile and adjacent areas in Argentina, reaching up to 2 m in diameter and 50 m in height, and may live for over 1,000 years.

Why is this species important?

A. araucana has great historical and social importance. The seeds form an important part of the Pehuenche indigenous people’s diet (Pehuenche means “people of Pehuén”, the local name for A. araucana). The tree forms characteristic forests, and is valued for its uniqueness and natural beauty, providing important tourism and recreational opportunities. For these reasons, it is the emblem of a number of national parks and provinces in both Chile and Argentina. Due to its high ornamental value, it is cultivated in gardens of Europe and America. A. araucana is also used to reconstruct climatic conditions by measuring the growth rings which may go back hundreds of years.

Where is it found?

A. araucana occurs in the Andean Range (37°S- 40°S) and the Cordillera de Nahuelbuta Coastal Range (37°S-38° S) of Chile and on the eastern slopes of the Argentinean Andes (38°S–39 S). It grows in mixed forests with deciduous or evergreen species (depending on the location), or in pure stands.

A. araucana forests are exposed to a disturbance regime characterized by recurrent volcanism and fire. Volcanic eruptions have caused burial of the land by thick volcanic lava flows. Natural fires started by lava and ejected incandescent material, as well as by lightning, are common in the area. Fires were also started by the aboriginal population prior to c. 1900, and later by European settlers and other groups, often associated with logging and seed collection activities. A. araucana establishes under the partial shade of post-fire stands dominated by Nothofagus species, or may be the initial colonist on rocky sites that have been burned. It has greater longevity compared with Nothofagus species, which is important for the persistence of A. araucana in these habitats.

How do people use it?

Between November and December female flowers start growing as spherical green cones formed by numerous coriaceous scales. Each cone releases between 120-200 seeds, called “piñones”, which are 4-5 cm long and 1.5 cm wide. These seeds are edible and form an important food source for the indigenous Pehuenche people in the central south of Chile. The seeds have a high carbohydrate content and the collection, storage, trade and preparation of meals from them is a characteristic and important part of the traditional lives of the Pehuenche people. Monkey puzzle wood has a high mechanical resistance and moderate resistance to fungal decay. These properties mean that it has been used for beams in buildings, bridges, piers, roofs, furniture, boat structures, veneers and plywood.

Why is it threatened?

A. araucana forests have been rapidly destroyed and degraded due to logging, fire and grazing. The declaration of the monkey puzzle tree as a Natural Monument in Chile means that logging of the species is now forbidden. The Natural Monument status was revoked in 1987, but it was reinstated in 1990 due to pressure from conservationists and indigenous people. However, there are currently pressures by some landowners to revoke the protection status once more, which would be a serious threat to the conservation of the species. During 2001-2002 thousands of hectares of native Araucaria forest were dramatically burnt in southern Chile. Preliminary information indicates that over 8,300 ha of native forest was burnt in the Malleco National Reserve, destroying 71 percent of the Araucaria araucana forests, and in Conguillio National Park 1,600 ha of pure Araucaria araucana forests were burnt. The cause of the fires is unknown but some local communities say that private owners were involved as they want to the 1990 logging ban to be revoked.

In Chile, national parks and reserves that protect the species are concentrated in the Andean ranges. In the Cordillera de Nahuelbuta (Chilean Coastal Range) most of the monkey puzzle forests are privately owned. Burning, grazing and conversion to Pinus radiata plantations have disturbed important areas in the Coastal Range, and these remain ongoing threats. New research has found that these coastal populations have genetic differences from those of the Andes, so their conservation is of great importance. The species is officially protected in Argentina and most populations are within national parks.

A. araucana is also listed in Appendix I of CITES, forbidding its international trade.

What conservation action is needed?

A conservation strategy for the species must consider the expansion of the Nahuelbuta National Park, and the development of new protected areas in the Coastal Range, especially in the southernmost populations. Restoration activities are also necessary for Andean and Coastal populations. Activities should include fine-scale mapping, in order to identify small-sized populations that require urgent restoration measures, and education on the conservation and propagation of A. araucana for local people. The Global Trees Campaign is planning restoration activities for A. araucana forest in Chile and Argentina, including educational programmes.

Microberlinia bisulcata

2008-04-27T16:42:00.000-07:00

Common Name: Zingana, zebrano, amouk, allen ele (CAM), izingana (G), enuk-enug (EGu), African zebrawood
Scientific Name: Microberlinia bisulcata
Categories: Timber, high risk
Conservation Status: Critical

Introduction
The Cross-Sanaga-Bioko Coastal Forests and Atlantic Equatorial Coastal Forests of Cameroon support about 50 percent of the 7,000 to 8,000 plants endemic to Tropical West Africa, including the critically endangered endemic tree, Microberlinia bisulcata . These biological features, especially the presence of endemic families and genera indicates a long evolutionary past of the eco-region.

Why is the species important?
Microberlinia bisulcata forms ectomycorrhizal associations with soil fungi. This symbiotic relationship is vital for soil nutrient cycling, particularly phosphorus.

Where is it found?
Africa, Cameroon, Guinéo-Congolaise rainforest and evergreen coastal forest.

How do people use it?
Known as zebrano, the wood has alternating black and white stripes, making it a desirable decorative wood. It has been used for furniture, veneer, inlay, turning, and carving.

Why is it threatened?
The wood fetches high prices on the international market, leading to excessive timber extraction.

What conservation action is needed?
Koru National Park does provide in-situ protection but more is required, such as the ex-situ conservation effort being developed by La Station de Recherche Forestière de Kumbu au Cameroun.

Makore

2008-04-27T16:37:00.000-07:00

Makore

Common Name:

Makore

Scientific Name:

Tieghemella heckelii

Categories:

Music, Timber

Conservation Status:

Endangered

Introduction

T. heckelii reaches a height of about 60 m. It has a straight trunk that is free of buttresses and has a diameter of up to 3 m.

Why is this species important?

Tieghemella heckelii produces a fine timber that is commercially valuable. It is one of only two species in the genus. The other, T. africana, is also an endangered timber species of Central and West Africa. Ecologically makoré is important as a source of fruits and seeds eaten by elephants and other forest mammals.

Where is it found?

T. heckelii is found mainly in wet evergreen rainforest in West Africa. It has been recorded from Cameroon, Côte d’Ivoire, Gabon, Ghana, Liberia, Nigeria and Sierra Leone.

How do people use it?

Also known as African cherry and cherry mahogany, T. heckelii is a timber species used for furniture, cabinet work, joinery, decorative veneers, panelling, boat building, flooring, turnery, carving, marine plywood and many other applications where a quality hardwood is required. In musical instrument production it has been used for pianos and harpsichords, with the most highly coloured timber currently figuring as the sound board for electro-acoustic guitars.Makoré has the appearance of a close-grained mahogany, the heartwood ranging in colour from a cherry-like pinkish red to a darker brownish red hue. The grain is most often straight, showing the occasional mottle. Locally the oil from the seed is eaten and the fruit is used to make soap.

Why is it threatened?

The forests of West Africa are now reduced to fragments of their former range. In Côte d’Ivoire, Guinea, Nigeria and Sierra Leone the primary rainforests now cover less than 10 percent of their original extent. Ghana has more of its forests remaining with over 20 percent forest cover and Liberia has roughly 40 percent of its original forest cover. Over-exploitation in some countries is leading to serious population declines for makoré, notably in Ghana and Liberia, where the possibility of T. heckelii becoming extinct has been reported. Regeneration may be limited in some areas because of a reduction in the number of seed dispersers, particularly elephants.

What conservation action is needed?

Illegal or poorly controlled logging are problems in the countries where makoré occurs. Improved regulation of trade is urgently needed. Certified sustainable forest management to Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) standards in areas where makoré is harvested should be the goal.In Liberia, FFI is working with local and international partners to improve the basis for the conservation and sustainable management of forests through forest mapping and protected area management.

Loulu

2008-04-27T16:34:00.000-07:00

Loulu

Common Name:

Loulu

Scientific Name:

Pritchardia limahuliensis

Categories:

Endangered

Conservation Status:

Critically endangered

Why is this species important?

This palm is endemic to Kauai, the northernmost and oldest of the Hawaiian Islands chain with the greatest diversity of plant species of any island in Hawaii.

Where is it found?

Pritchardia limahuliensis is found only in the Limahuli valley, growing in lowland moist forest. There are fewer than 300 individuals in the wild and regeneration is limited, mainly because of seed predation by rats and pigs.

Why is it threatened?

Loulu is threatened by grazing and other damage from introduced animals and by competition from invasive exotic plants.

What conservation action is needed?

P. limahuliensis is not yet listed under the US Endangered Species Act.The National Tropical Botanic Garden (NTBG) is currently involved in a restoration project for the species and maintains an ex situ conservation collection.

Larix Decidua

2008-04-27T16:20:00.000-07:00

Larix decidua ssp. carpatica

Common Name:

larita de Carpati, zada, crin, cadrin, and the oak of the mountains

Scientific Name:

Larix decidua ssp. carpatica

Categories:

Timber

Range OF Larix Decidua

Why is this species important?

It has been used to make furniture, suports and in naval construction. It is the only native larch in Romania and is a distinct subspecies with cones that are smaller and have a more concave, rounded scale than L. decidua.

Where is it found?

Larix deciduas ssp. carpatica is found in Romania in the Ceahlau, Ciucas, Bucegi, Lotru, Trascau and Gilau Mountains. It grows in clusters or as individuals at high altitude on low nutrient, rocky ground. The stands often include spruce, pine, fir, and beech. The species is protected in the Nature reserve "polita cu crini" (370 ha) inside the Ceahlau National Park; in Vidolm Nature reserve (4,420 ha), in Alba County; and in Bucegi National Park

Why is it threatened?

The primary threat is from over-harvesting for timber.

What conservation action is being carried out?

The embriogenesis of the species from the Bucegi National Park has been studied at the Faculty of Biology of the University of Bucharest. It is also protected under national laws (237/1950, 137/1995 and 5/2000) from picking and uprooting, and local government agencies are aware that the plant is in protected areas.

There are ex situ collections of this species in various botanic gardens and arboreta in Romania, but the seeds are not yet stored in a seed bank.

Honduras rosewood

2008-04-27T16:16:00.000-07:00

Honduras rosewood

Common Name:

Honduras rosewood

Scientific Name:

Dalbergia stevensonii

Categories:

Music, Timber

Conservation Status:

Not evaluated

Introduction

This timber species grows to a height of between 15 and 30 m and has a diameter of about 1 m.

Why is this species important?

The timber of Honduras rosewood is highly valued on the world market particularly for use in musical instrument manufacture. Exports have taken place since 1841.

Where is it found?

D. stevensonii is found primarily in Belize in Central America where it is restricted to the southern part of the country. It occurs in fairly large patches along rivers but also on inter-riverine and drier areas, mostly between the Sarstoon and Monkey rivers.

How do people use it?

D. stevensonii produces a timber that is hard, heavy, durable and very resonant. In general the denser a wood is, the greater the volume of the note that can be produced acoustically from it, when struck or otherwise made to vibrate in air. As a dense wood, D. stevensonii produces a clear, loud note when struck and has found itself most highly valued in the production of orchestral xylophones and claves. Owing to its hardness and durability it is used as fingerboards for the violin family of instruments. It is also used to make veneers for fine furniture and cabinets, the backs of brushes, knife handles and for fine turnery.
For more information on music woods, try the SoundWood Project page.

Why is it threatened?

The conservation status of Dalbergia stevensonii has not been evaluated using the IUCN Red List categories and criteria but felling for timber has depleted stocks of the species Dalbergia stevensonii and it is likely that this species would qualify for the IUCN Red List.

What conservation action is needed?

An evaluation of the conservation status of Dalbergia stevensonii using the IUCN Red List categories and criteria is required.Certified sustainable forest management to Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) standards in areas where it is harvested should be the goal.FFI is supporting sustainable forest management and income generation in areas adjacent to the Golden Stream Corridor Preserve, in Toledo District, as part of the overall biodiversity strategy for the area. A training programme is being provided for indigenous communities to develop sustainable forestry management and a tree nursery is being developed for Dalbergia stevensonii and other species.

Hawaiian cotton tree

2008-04-27T15:41:00.000-07:00

Hawaiian cotton tree

Common Name:

Hau hele ’ula or koki’o (Hawaiian cotton tree)

Scientific Name:

Kokia drynarioides

Categories:

Medicinal, Endangered

Conservation Status:

Critically endangered

Why is this species important?

Kokia drynarioides is a tree found in Hawaii's dry forests. Almost 90% of these forests have been destroyed and with them 10% of Hawaii's native plants. The loss of this habitat has resulted in the designation as endangered of many of the Hawaiian honeycreepers, birds unique to Hawaii, which have co-evolved with many Hawaiian plants.K. drynarioides is a spectacular member of the hibiscus family. It is a small tree that grows to 10 m and has star-shaped leaves and large red flowers. It is well established in cultivation following the dispersal of large numbers of seeds to botanical gardens all over the world in the early 1900s and is sometimes used as a garden and ornamental plant.

Where is it found?

K. drynarioides is found only on the island of Hawaii in the central Pacific Ocean. A few individuals grow in the dry forest on the lava fields at Pu'u Wa'awa'a and Kaupulehu in the North Kona district. Only four individuals are known from the North Kona district and the species is not reproducing in the wild.

How do people use it?

Traditionally Hawaiians have used the bark of K. drynarioides to make red dye that is used to colour fishnets. It is also used as a medicine to prevent thrush.

Why is it threatened?

In the early 1900s collectors had already declared K. drynarioides to be "exceedingly rare". In 1984 it was listed as Endangered under the US Endangered Species Act. At that time it was known from a single population of 15 individuals. K. drynarioides is one of only three threatened and endangered Hawaiian plants (out of 293) for which the US Fish and Wildlife Service has designated habitat critical to the survival and recovery of the species. Extensive grazing has resulted in the loss of trees and habitat for K. drynarioides. The tree is still threatened by the continued browsing of domestic cattle and feral animals that has prevented the growth and establishment of young trees. Wildfires are a threat to the remaining trees. Fountain grass Pennisetum setaceum is an alien species that has now covered the once barren lava substrate. It helps to fuel wildfires as well as competing with native tree seedlings for light and water.

What conservation action is needed?

Following the designation of critical habitat for K. drynarioides, management goals include the reduction of threats of fire and damage by animals, habitat improvement to encourage natural regeneration and the planting of trees that have been raised in nurseries. The state and federal government is also considering an alternative route for a proposed saddle road realignment that will avoid rare dry forest and habitat for K. drynarioides.

Dracaena draco

2008-04-27T15:36:00.000-07:00

Dracaena draco

Common Name:

Dragon Tree, Sangre de Drago

Scientific Name:

Dracaena draco

Categories:

Timber, National, Musical, Medicinal

Conservation Status:

The Red Data Book of Cape Verde classifies the species as "Endangered", while it is known to be extinct in the wild on Brava and Santiago where only planted specimens exist today; it is also at severe risk of extinction on the island of S. Vicente where it is classified as Critically Endangered.

Introduction

In the Greek myth, "The Eleventh Labour of Hercules: The Apples of the Hespérides", there is mention of Landon, the hundred-headed dragon, guardian of the Garden of the Hespérides. In order to fulfill Hercules’ task to bring back three golden apples from the garden either Hercules or Atlas kills Landon the dragon, depending upon the version of the myth. Landon's red blood flowed out upon the land and from it sprung up the trees that we now know as 'Dragon Trees'.

Where is it found?

The species is found on the Canary Islands, Cape Verde Islands (Sto. Antão, S. Vicente, S. Nicolau, Santiago, Fogo and Brava), Madeira and Morocco.

How do people use it?

The Guanche people of the Canary Islands used the sap in their mummification processes. In Ancient Rome Sangre de Drago was used as a colorant and across Europe it has been used as a varnish and anti-oxidant for iron tools

Why is it threatened?

Approximately five hundred years ago the fruit of the Dragon Tree was the staple food of an endemic, Dodo-like, flightless bird that is now extinct. The processing of Dragon Tree seeds through the digestive tract of this bird helped stimulate germination. It is possible that the loss of this bird species has led to a decline in naturally occurring Dragon Trees. It is becoming very rare and seed must be manually processed in order to germinate.

What conservation action is needed?

The species is protected under national law from picking and uprooting and efforts have been made on the islands to make people aware of the plant and the need for its conservation. There are ex situ collections of this species. The creation of a network of protected areas is in progress on the Cape Verde Islands but until now no protected area has been established (with the exception of some uninhabited islets). Some of those areas foreseen as protected areas will include part of the populations of Dracaena draco and Sideroxylon marginata.

Clanwilliam cedar

2008-04-25T16:52:00.000-07:00

Common Name:

Clanwilliam cedar

Scientific Name:

Widdringtonia cedarbergensis

Categories:

Endangered

Conservation Status:

Endangered

Introduction

The Clanwilliam cedar is a majestic tree of 6-18 m in height, endemic to the Cederberg Mountains in the Western Cape Province of South Africa.

Why is this species important?

The Clanwilliam cedar is one of the few trees found in the shrub-dominated fynbos vegetation of the Cape region of South Africa. Historically it played a critical role in the development of thearea, being an important source of timber for the early European settlers in this largely treeless region. From the beginning of the eighteenth century, its fragrant, rot-resistant and aesthetically beautiful timber was extensively exploited for building, furniture and later for telegraph poles. Although harvesting of live trees has been banned for the past 100 years, the Clanwilliam cedar is still a characteristic and much-valued component of the Cederberg Mountain vegetation.

Where is it found?

The Clanwilliam cedar is only found in the Cederberg Mountain range in the Western Cape Province of South Africa. The mountains lie between latitudes 32° 00’S and 34°45’S and longitudes 18°50’E and 19°25’E. The cedars grow on cliffs, rocky outcrops and slopes, largely between 1050 m and 1650 m above sea level. In the northern part of its range, the tree appears to occur mainly on the eastern slopes, but no such limitation exists in the rest of its range. In the early nineteenth century travellers to the area wrote of a forest “24 miles long and two miles wide”. Today the cedar occurs as individual trees with many dead relicts over a much-reduced area: it is estimated that an area of 60-70,000 ha of dense woodland has been reduced to 25,000 ha of scattered trees. If they do not succumb to fire, the cedars can live for up to 400 years.

How do people use it?

The Clanwilliam cedar was extensively exploited for timber in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, initiated by the arrival of the early European settlers in the region. It produces a fragrant, durable timber with an attractive appearance, which was used for construction, furniture and telegraph poles. Harvesting of live trees has been banned for the past 100 years.

Why is it threatened?

A combination of factors seems to have led to the decline in the species. The extensive exploitation by man clearly played an important role in diminishing numbers in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, although evidence suggests that the ecological situation of the cedar was fragile even before that time due to climatic changes. Although harvesting of the trees has been banned for 100 years, the number of cedars has continued to decline and there is little sign of re-establishment of young trees. An increase in the frequency of large-scale, intense fires is believed to be responsible, although fire is also essential for the natural regeneration of the species. It takes up to 30 years for a tree to bear seeds, and it seems that the increased frequency of fires means that few saplings live to reproduce before fire kills them. It also appears that the seed bank in the natural stands of mature trees has fallen below a self-sustaining level. A large fire in 1989 destroyed hundreds of trees and is believed to have been particularly significant in the recent failure in cedar regeneration. Consumption of the seeds and young shoots by rodents has also been cited as a contributory factor.

What conservation action is needed?

Without large-scale planting of seedlings, the Clanwilliam cedar is unlikely to recover. An IUCN action plan for the species concludes “the only option open to increase cedar numbers is now found to lie in a large-scale planting scheme of nursery-grown seedlings in newly burnt areas and careful management of the burning regimes.” Fires need to be prevented or controlled until seedlings have reached reproductive maturity (15-30 years). Western Cape Nature Conservation (WCNC) established a cedar nursery and planting programme in the late 1980s, but due to lack of funds, it had to be abandoned in the late 1990s. As part of the Global Trees Campaign, FFI is now assisting the Botanical Society of South Africa, working with the WCNC, to re-establish the nursery and planting programme.

Cebu Cinnamon

2008-04-25T16:22:00.000-07:00

Common Name:

Cebu Cinnamon, Kaningag, Kalingag

Scientific Name:

Cinnamomum cebuense

Categories:

Medicinal

Conservation Status:

unassessed

Highly resticted natural range

The Cebu Cinnamon is endemic to Cebu Island, Philippines and is relatively new to science. It was described by A.J.G.H. Kostermans in 1986 having been collected on March 27, 1971 in a mountain forest near Sitio Cantipla, Cebu City in the central part of Cebu Island, by an unknown collector.

It is a member of the family Lauraceae, known for their aromatic bark and leaves. Some of its members, including Cinnamomum camphora, C. parthenoxylon and C. glanduliferum are an important source of camphor and essential oils for the perfume and pharmaceutical industries. The genus Cinnamomum has about 250 species, distributed throughout tropical and subtropical E Asia, Australia and the Pacific Islands.

It is a small to medium sized tree, reaching a height of approximately 6 to 8m and diameter of 25 to 35 cm with smooth outer bark.

Where is it found?
C. cebuense is only known to grow in the forest fragments of Cantipla and Tabunan. According to local residents, Cantipla has a greater population than the Tabunan forest. Both forests fragments are found in Baranggay Tabunan, Cebu City in Central Cebu, Philippines.

How do people use it?
The bark of the tree has medicinal properties. It is used by local residents as remedy for stomach ache whereby the bark is either chewed directly or boiled with a glass of water before intake. No other uses have been reported by the local residents, however the leaves of the tree may be a potential source of spice as with other closely related species.

Why is it threatened?
One of the major threats facing the Cebu Cinnamon is the loss of the surrounding forest by agricultural encroachment. The prevalent practice of stripping its bark for medicinal use also poses a threat to its survival, as this may lead to infection, or death if the tree is ring-barked.

What conservation action is needed?
Fauna & Flora International and the GTC are working with Philippine NGOs and students to conduct a survey of this species and are looking to develop this into a species conservation strategy.

Carossier palm

2008-04-25T16:16:00.000-07:00

Common Name:

Carossier palm

Scientific Name:

Attalea crassispatha

Categories:

Endangered

Conservation Status:

Critically endangered

Why is this species important?
This attractive palm is similar in appearance to the African oil palm. It is of particular interest to botanists due to its unique flower structure and unusual distribution as all other species of Attalea are confined to Central and South America.

Where is it found?
Attalea crassispatha is found only on the south-western peninsula of Haiti on the island of Hispaniola in the Caribbean. It is one of the rarest palms in the region and is thought to be on the brink of extinction in the wild. In 1996 there were estimated to be no more than 30 individuals left in the wild. A. crassispatha occurs in degraded, hilly areas with four major population centres at Fond-des-Nègres, the lower Cavaillon/Boulmier river watersheds, Fond-des-Blancs and the Bonne Fin/Gros Marin river watersheds.

How do people use it?
The nut of this palm is a rich source of fat and is highly prized as a food and cooking oil. The trunk is durable and insect resistant and is used occasionally in construction. The longevity and architecture of any solitary palm makes it a favourite landmark and boundary marker for farmers.

Why is it threatened?
A. crassispatha is threatened by encroaching agriculture. Habitat is converted to other uses and the practices of slash and burn and free grazing do not favour natural regeneration. Three habitats have been identified where A. crassispatha grows: fields, courtyard gardens and shrub forests. Fields normally consist of mixed annual crops that are converted to pasture after several years. Palms have little chance of survival in these habitats, as the pressure is too high for natural regeneration. In secondary shrub forests there is heavy local land pressure and the forest is likely to be harvested for charcoal and then converted to fields. Courtyard gardens may provide the best chance of survival for A. crassispatha. Over-harvesting of the nuts from this palm is a further problem A final threat is from the periodic severe storms that affect the area. In 1998, a mature palm was blown down during Hurricane Georges. Young A. crassispatha appear to be sensitive to flooding conditions.

What conservation action is needed?
Conservation efforts have concentrated on planting palms and collecting seeds from adult trees to provide a source of seedlings and in 1998, FFI funded such a project on Haitian palms through its 100% Fund. Planting of A. crassispatha began in the 1980s and continues to this day. A small grove of 25 palms has recently been planted at the Fairchild Tropical Garden. In 1998, one of the trees in this garden fruited for the first time, probably the only time this has happened outside Haiti. In 1998 an additional 21 individuals were planted at various locations throughout Haiti. In 1998, about three kg of fruit was harvested from three individuals and taken for propagation as seedlings. The seedlings that germinate from these seeds will be targeted towards group plantings on secure public and private property in Haiti. Much more educational work needs to be done, involving NGOs and schools. The survival and growth of seedlings that have been planted needs to be closely monitored, as does the fate of naturally regenerated seedlings.

Bristlecone Pine

2008-04-25T16:15:00.000-07:00

Common Name:

Bristlecone Pine

Scientific Name:

Pinus longaeva

Conservation Status:

Vulnerable VU B1+2e

Why is this species important?
This species is believed to be one of the world’s oldest organisms, with recorded ages up to 4870 years. As such, the timber can provide an important record of environmental conditions over this period. Additionally, the dense, resinous timber can persist for a very long period of time even after death. Tree ring chronologies have been dated back 9,000 years.

The seeds are also an important food source for small mammals and birds, especially Clark’s Nutcracker.

Where is it found?
It is characteristic of the tree-line in the high desert ranges of eastern California, Nevada, and Utah of the United States of America.

Why is it threatened?
This relict species suffers from intrinsically poor recruitment, reproduction and regeneration. It is doubtful whether present rates of regeneration are sufficient to replace the population under present climatic and environmental conditions.

What conservation action is needed?
Most areas where the species occurs are protected and cutting or gathering wood is prohibited, for example in the Great Basin National Park in Nevada and the Ancient Bristlecone Pine Forest Botanical Area of Inyo National Forest in California.

Bois dentelle

2008-04-25T16:09:00.000-07:00

Common Name:

Bois dentelle

Scientific Name:

Elaeocarpus bojeri

Conservation Status:

Critical (CR)

Bois dentelle is a beautiful tree, found in high cloud forest on the island of Mauritius. The most remarkable thing about the species are the flowers – sprays of white bell flowers with fine lacy petals that cover the tree in summer (January –March).

A relative of Elaeocarpus serratus (bois d’olive) , a native of India that is planted commercially for the fruits. The flesh of the fruits are used to make pickles.

Why is this species important?
The species has no commercial value.

Where is it found?
This species is endemic to Mauritius, found in cloud forest. Only two individuals are left.

Why is it threatened?
The remaining area of cloud forest in Mauritius is highly degraded due to invasive alien species. The last site known for this tree is a small hill (Piton Grand Bassin) that is found in the middle of an important religious area for Hindus. The hill is heavily invaded by guava (Psidium cattleianum) and Litsea monopetala.

What conservation action is being carried out?
The government and NGOs are working together to save this species from extinction. One of the trees has been transplanted to a government nursery and seeds are collected from this. There are 2 offspring of this tree in collections, and a recent grafting attempt of this species onto E. serratus through collaboration between the Division of Horticulture (Ministry of Agriculture) and the Mauritian Wildlife Foundation, has proved successful. This allows for more availability of material for propagation by cuttings.

Baillonella toxisperma

2008-04-25T16:05:00.000-07:00

Common Name:

Moabi

Scientific Name:

Baillonella toxisperma

Categories:

Medicinal, Timber

Conservation Status:

Vulnerable

Why is this species important?

Moabi is botanically, ecologically and economically important. Baillonella is a monotypic genus with no closely related species. It is a one of the largest trees to be found in the Congo Basin, growing to a height of 60 m and up to 5 m in diameter. Within the Congo biodiversity hotspot moabi is found only in primary and old secondary rainforest. Elephants and other forest mammals eat the fruits of the species. The timber is very important as a source of export earnings. Oil from the seeds is important in the local economy. The bark is used medicinally and the species is culturally important to the Baka pygmies.

Where is it found?

B. toxisperma is found only in rainforests of Central and West Africa. It occurs mainly in Cameroon, Gabon and Nigeria and is also found in Angola, Congo Republic and Equatorial Guinea.

How do people use it?

B. toxisperma is heavily exploited as a commercial timber, particularly in Cameroon and Gabon. In Cameroon, timber from B. toxisperma represents 10% of companies’ total production and between 3.4% and 5% of the total export value of logs of all species. Gabon is the main exporter of B. toxisperma, exporting almost 40,000 m³ in 1998. Demand for the timber is particularly strong in southern Europe. It is used for furniture, cabinet work, decorative flooring, turnery and carving, decorative veneers, joinery and store fittings. For local people B. toxisperma is important in economic, cultural and medicinal terms. The fruits of B. toxisperma are edible and extracts from the bark are used to produce remedies for dental and back problems. Seeds from the fruit are used to make karité oil, which is used for both consumption and trade. In the larger cities in Cameroon, karité oil can be worth as much as US$ 12 per litre. In Cameroonian markets revenues from selling the oil are an important source of income. The value of non-timber products of B. toxisperma has also been recognized by the French cosmetics industry, which has shown an interest in the oil.

Why is it threatened?

The main threat to B. toxisperma is from logging. It is very fragile in terms of its regeneration since it does not flower until it is 50-70 years old and produces fruit only once every three years. In some areas B. toxisperma has already been logged out. In Cameroon B. toxisperma trees within 5km of a village cannot be logged unless the village chief agrees and the population is compensated. In practice, trees have been lost and the population has received no compensation. Logging practices are generally unsustainable and B. toxisperma may disappear from a large part of its original areas of distribution in 10 to 20 years. In the Dja forests of Cameroon, nearly all valuable trees are logged without companies undertaking any initiative to ensure regeneration of the species.

What conservation action is needed?

At present logging companies are not complying with the law and the law itself may provide inadequate protection. In Cameroon, trees less than 1m diameter should not be logged; the figure is 0.8 m in Gabon and Congo Republic. These limits would still leave the regeneration of B. toxisperma at risk. It is argued that the minimum diameter should be increased and measures introduced to conserve ‘mother trees’ that can ensure regeneration takes place. Some argue that there should be a total ban on logging of B. toxisperma.

Moabi is found in several protected areas in Cameroon (Forêt de Nki, Forêt de Boumba Bek and Réserve de Faune de Dja. It is also found in the Sibang Arboretum in Libreville, Gabon. Cameroon has planted 389 ha of B. toxisperma.

Alerce

2008-04-25T16:00:00.000-07:00

Common Name:

Alerce

Scientific Name:

Fitzroya cupressoides

Categories:

Endangered, Timber

Conservation Status:

Endangered

Natural Monument of Chile
Alerce is an endemic evergreen conifer that may reach 5 m in diameter and 50 m in height. This species can live longer than 3,600 years, making it the second longest-lived tree after Pinus longaeva.

Why is this species important?
Fitzroya forests have a unique composition and structure and a high ecological value. In the past, the timber has been heavily exploited and was of great commercial use, but the economic importance of Fitzroya forests today is mainly linked to the potential for eco-tourism. F. cupressoides has extensive cultural and historical value, with generations of people linked to the exploitation and trade of the tree. The amazing age attained by specimens of F. cupressoides – the oldest known individual is 3,622 years old – gives an invaluable insight into the historical climatic conditions of southern South America.

Where is it found?
F. cupressoides grows in the temperate rainforest of southern Chile and adjacent parts of Argentina. Specifically, it occurs in Chile in the Coastal Range (39° 50’S - 43° 30’S), Central Depression (41° 20’S – 41° 50’S) and Andes (40° 30’S – 43° 30’S). In the Chilean Andes F. cupressoides is strongly associated with large-scale natural disturbance of various types such as lava flows, volcanic ash deposition and landslides. In the Chilean Coastal Range, the forests have originated on areas historically affected by fire.

How do people use it?
Since the sixteenth century Fitzroya cupressoides wood has been highly valued for its beauty and durability. As a result, it has been extensively used as facing material (boards or shingles) on buildings in southern Chile. Owing to its fine, homogeneous texture, the reddish brown wood is used to make barrels, furniture, musical instruments, pencils, and handicrafts.

Why is it threatened?
Owing to the high value of the timber, F. cupressoides forests have been extensively destroyed and degraded over time. Repeated human-set fires and heavy grazing have also contributed to the species’ decline. Although it was placed on Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) in 1975, forbidding all international trade, and was declared a national monument in Chile in 1976, outlawing the cutting of live trees, enforcement of these laws has been problematic, and illegal harvesting is still an important threat in many areas in Chile. In Argentina it has been protected since 1945, and logging is almost non-existent.In Chile, 47,400 ha (17%) of a total of 264,993 ha of Fitzroya forests are protected within National Parks and National Reserves. The remaining 83% of Fitzroya forests are largely within private properties.

What conservation action is needed?
To stop the current decline in the species the development of alternative uses for F. cupressoides forests, such as the utilisation of non-timber forest products and eco-tourism, is necessary. Ecological restoration and the creation of new protected areas are also urgently needed. In the Chilean Coastal Range between 40º S and 43º S, the expansion of protected areas of Fitzroya is an agreed national priority. In particular, the Fitzroya forests with very old, giant trees growing on fragile sites around the Reloncaví Estuary in the Chilean Andes should be declared a Protected Area. Small patches of young Fitzroya populations in the Central Depression of Chile are an extreme case of habitat fragmentation and are highly threatened by urban and suburban expansion.It is also very important to increase the resources of the Chilean Forest Service and to improve the judicial procedure, in order to increase enforcement of the existing legal protection for the tree. The Global Trees Campaign is developing initiatives to restore and conserve the remnant forests in the Central Depression and Coastal Range of southern Chile, including the propagation of F. cupressoides plants. The campaign has also started to support research on the amount of F. cupressoides wood that comes from illegal cuttings or from areas that were burnt before 1976. This information will be essential to provide new tools for improving the legal status of Fitzroya cupressoides.

African blackwood

2008-04-25T15:48:00.000-07:00

Common Name:

African blackwood

Scientific Name:

Dalbergia melanoxylon

Categories:

Timber, National, Musical, Medicinal

Conservation Status:

Lower risk/near threatened

National tree of Tanzania
Dalbergia melanoxylon (known in Kiswahili as mpingo) is a small, gnarled, heavily branched tree that grows extremely slowly, not reaching harvestable age for between 70 and 100 years. It has very dense, almost black heartwood that is currently harvested for international trade, mainly from Tanzania and Mozambique. Its other local names include babanus, grenadilla, Mozambique ebony, mufunjo, mugembe, and mukelete.

Why is this species important?
Mpingo is an important component of many ecosystems, including the open miombo woodland that covers two thirds of Tanzania. It is a nitrogen fixing species (of the Leguminosae family) that improves soil fertility. The tree is also good at maintaining soil stability. Its leaves provide fodder for migrating herbivores on the east African savannahs and for domestic livestock. The mature trees have the ability to survive fires that sweep through grasslands destroying other vegetation. The dark heartwood of mpingo, which gives it its western name of African blackwood, is one of the most economically valuable timbers in the world. It has exceptional mechanical properties that make it perfect for carving and it has a beautiful finish. It is used for carving intricate ornaments in Tanzania, and in the west is used to manufacture woodwind instruments. The loss of the export and carving industries in Tanzania would devastate local economies and would be disastrous for instrument manufacturers in the west.

Where is it found?
Mpingo grows under a wide range of environmental conditions and is native to 26 African countries. It ranges from northern Ethiopia, to the south in Angola, and spreads from Senegal across to Tanzania. It is often found on dry, rocky sites at elevations from sea level to 1200 m, although it is most frequent in the mixed deciduous forest and savannahs of the coastal regions of Tanzania and Mozambique.

How do people use it?
Mpingo has many traditional uses; a variety of ailments can be treated with medicines made from different parts of the tree. The leaves, bark and pods can all be used as animal fodder and the heart and sapwood can be burnt as high-energy fuel, or made into charcoal. In some areas, the wood is boiled to produce a broth that is used to bathe newborn babies, which is believed to impart strength.The heartwood is ideal for turning and carving because of its exceptional density. A lustrous finish can be achieved because it is naturally oily and finely grained. In Africa it is used to carve tools and utensils. The Makonde tribe, originally from northern Mozambique, carve ornaments that are sold to the tourist trade.In the west mpingo is used primarily to manufacture musical instruments such as clarinets, oboes and bagpipes, and there are considered to be no viable alternatives for top class woodwind instruments. Its exceptional density enables the intricate shapes of an instrument to be carved. It is highly durable, which protects the instrument from the acidity of saliva and oily hands. It is highly environmentally stable and does not distort when exposed to increased humidity. This is essential, as it prevents the tone and pitch altering significantly when the instrument is being played. Many musicians feel that mpingo instruments create beguiling and mellow tones that cannot be achieved with instruments made of alternative materials. For example, it is considered one of the better alternatives to Brazilian Rosewood for guitar backs and sides (see Soundwood page here).

Why is it threatened?
In countries such as Kenya, mpingo is considered to be seriously threatened. There is growing concern among instrument manufacturers that the supplies of high quality wood are becoming limited. Although mpingo is not likely to become biologically extinct, it is at high risk of becoming locally and commercially extinct. Economic extinction is a possibility for several reasons. Mature trees are being harvested at an apparently unsustainable rate. Only 10-20 percent of harvestable age trees contain timber suitable for export. The wood is brittle and shatters easily, therefore sections containing irregularities cannot be used for instruments. The trees are so twisted that only small sections can be used, and around 90 percent of the tree is wasted. A further quarter of exported timber is unsuitable due to hidden irregularities.Uncontrolled fires intended to clear land for agriculture kill young trees, and can cause heart rot in older trees, as they acquire fungus infections due to fire damage. Selective harvesting of straighter, taller trees may be causing ‘genetic erosion’ that may reduce the genetic quality of the population. Unsuitable characteristics may thus become more prevalent in future populations.

What conservation action is needed?
Various national measures have been taken to protect mpingo in countries where it occurs. In 1994, the Governments of Tanzania, Kenya and Germany proposed that the species be listed on Appendix II of CITES. African countries withdrew this to allow more discussion. In 1995 FFI co-hosted a workshop in Mozambique that produced an Action Plan for the species. Subsequently the Mpingo Project has undertaken research on the tree. As part of the Global Trees Campaign, FFI worked on a project entitled “Sustainable production and trade in African blackwood,” funded by the German Government.

SAVE EARTH !!!!

2008-04-25T15:33:00.000-07:00

Q: What is a threatened tree?
A: This is a tree species that is threatened with extinction (rather than an individual tree). The threat status is taken from Oldfield, S.F., Lusty, C. and Mackinven, A. (1998) The world list of threatened trees. World Conservation Press, Cambridge, UK. In this publication, the IUCN Red List categories and criteria are used to define the degree of threat.

Q: What are the main threats to trees?
A: Habitat destruction and commercial logging are the main threats to tree species around the world.

Q: What is the Global Trees Campaign?
A: The Campaign was set up by Fauna & Flora International and the UNEP - World Conservation Monitoring Centre to draw attention to the vast number of threatened trees throughout the world. Botanic Gardens Conservation International joined as partners in 2006. The Global Trees Campaign aims to save the world's most threatened tree species and their habitats through provision of information, conservation action and support for sustainable use.

Q: How are project selected for support?
A: Many of the projects came as a result of the listing for "The world list of threatened trees" and a subsequent survey of tree experts worldwide. The Global Trees Campaign is now working to conserve tree species in countries where it has existing projects, and also welcomes suggestions from the scientific community for future conservation work.

Q: If we protect forests, won't that automatically protect their rare tree species?
A: The global track record for protecting forests is poor. About 80 per cent of Amazonian rainforest destruction is the result of illegal logging. And just protecting large areas of forest isn't enough. Some trees occur in such small numbers that they can easily be wiped out by accident unless they are mapped and specifically protected. Other rare trees grow outside forest habitats and have unique conservation requirements.

Q: Can't botanists ensure the future of endangered species by collecting their seeds and storing them in a seed bank?
A: Easier said than done! Seed banking works well with many temperate plants and annual crops, but seeds from tropical trees tend to be short-lived and quickly die under low-temperature, low-moisture conditions. Even in ideal conditions, seeds only have a limited storage life and must be germinated at regular intervals to produce plants that will regenerate a fresh seed sample. This isn't practical for trees that take decades to reach flowering size. Each time seeds are taken out of store for regeneration some genetic viability is also lost.

Q: When money and resources for conservation are scarce, is it really worth conserving endemic trees that are only a minor part of the world's flora?
A: Endemics have disproportionate importance wherever they occur, both for local human populations and wildlife. Areas with a high level of endemic tree species are often 'hotspots' of species diversity. Lose an endemic tree on and island, and all the species that depend on it - including people - will suffer.

Q: Why not allow logging companies to fell natural forests, provided they leave rare species intact?
A: Forests are more than the sum of their parts. Many tropical trees depend on specialist pollinators, such as bats and birds, which disappear when forests are cleared. Brazil nut trees left standing when a forest is felled produce poor seed crops due to pollination failure. Isolated mature trees are easily toppled by wind when they lose shelter from surrounding forest.

Q: How can I help?
A: You can:

Support the Global Trees Campaign!
Be sure that any wood you buy comes from a sustainable source, certified by the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) or similar.
Recycle all wood and paper. you are based in the UK, check our lists of wood recycling facilities on the wood waste pages.
Campaign for better international legislation to curb rainforest destruction. There have been many tentative pledges by governments to curb illegal logging, but by keeping the pressure on, these pledges will hopefully be put into action.
Get to know your local native and exotic trees and support local planting schemes.
Plant your own trees!

Yucca elephantipes

2008-04-25T14:54:00.000-07:00

Description :

Spineless or giant yucca is true to both its names: Its leaves are pliable and lack the sharp spines on the tips that are so characteristic of most yuccas, and this is one big yucca, getting up to 30 ft (9.1 m) tall. With age the trunk becomes rough and thick, and when mature it develops a swollen base and often branches a few feet off the ground. The leaves, which grow in a spiral rosette are shiny green, to 4 ft (1.2 m) long and about 3 in (7.6 cm) wide with serrated margins. Like other yuccas, this one has white bell shaped flowers borne on tall stalks above the foliage in summer. The selection, 'Variegata' has leaves with creamy yellow margins.

Location
Spineless yucca grows in arid regions of southern Mexico and Central America. It is a popular landscape plant in South Florida.

Culture

This yucca is easy to grow in any well drained soil, acidic or alkaline, and it is moderately tolerant of salt spray and salty soils. Light: Spineless yucca tolerates full sun to shade.
Moisture: Spineless yucca is highly tolerant of drought.
Hardiness: USDA Zones 9 - 11.
Propagation: Propagate yuccas from seeds or cuttings. Unlike some species, this yucca does not die after flowering.

Usage

Spineless yucca is the tallest of the yuccas, and is often used as a framing specimen at the side of a building or along a walkway. It makes a striking presence in large landscapes, but may be too much for a small yard. Since they lack the sharp spines of other yuccas, spineless yuccas are harmless and can be used where most others cannot. They are grown in containers and sometimes seen in indoor malls. Use this handsome tropical looking yucca as an accent in a gravelly succulent garden, but realize it will get large. The flower petals are edible.

Features
There are some 40 species of yuccas, all from North and Central America. Yuccas require a specific moth for pollination, and if the right moth isn't around, you won't see fruit develop even though the plant produces flowers.
This species is apparently in the midst of a name change. The official name is now Yucca guatemalensis and Y. elephantipes is now a synonym as is an even older name, Y. gigantea. Floridata will keep the old name for a while until we hve a better way to manage botanical synonyms in our database.

WOLLEMI PINE TREE

2008-04-25T14:44:00.000-07:00

The Wollemi pine tree is also know as “Dinosaur tree”. The Wollemi Pine can grow up to 130ft (39.6m) high in the wild, with a trunk diameter of more than 3ft (91cm).

The Family
The Wollemi pine tree is the only species in the third living genus (Wollemia) of the conifer family Araucariaceae. It has features in common with the other living genera Agathis and Araucaria as well as with Cretaceous and early Tertiary fossil groups such as Araucarioides.

Habitat and Growing Conditions
The Wollemi pine tree grows to a height of 130 feet (40 meters) in its natural habitat with a trunk diameter of over three feet (one meter). However, in cultivation they are expected to reach a maximum height of 65 feet (20 meters). The Pines have grown in temperatures from 23-113°F (-5 to 45°C) and trials in the US and Japan have indicated that it will survive temperatures as cold as 10.4°F (-12°C). They are fast growing, respond well to light and favor acid soils. The Wollemi™ pine trees produced from seeds and cuttings from the wild population are growing rapidly and averaging about one and a half feet (half a meter) in height a year if they have sufficient fertilization.

Unique Characteristics
The Wollemi pine tree's habit of spontaneously sprouting multiple trunks from its base (known as self-coppicing) has proved a vital defense in withstanding damage through fire and other natural disasters. Another unusual characteristic of the Wollemi pine tree, common to the Araucaria genus, is its habit of shedding whole branches rather than individual leaves. The distinct bark, which resembles bubbling chocolate, is also unique to the Wollemi pine tree.

Genetics
Research has not yet revealed genetic variation within or between the Wollemi™ pine tree populations. In fact, there is very low genetic variation within the whole family of Araucariaceae. Scientists believe that this may prove that it is possible to have exceptionally low variability and yet survive the ravages of bush fires, the Ice Age, dinosaurs, and the movement of continents.

Sex
Like its closest living relatives, the Wollemi pine tree is bisexual with both female and male reproductive cones on the same tree. The male and female cones are found at the very tips of the branches, with the majority of the female cones at the top of the trees.

Special Properties
A fungus found on the leaves of some of the Wollemi pine trees in the wild has been found to produce small quantities of a chemical known as Taxol—an anti-cancer agent. Taxol is not a byproduct of the Wollemi pine tree. Previously, Taxol has been found on trees in the Taxus genus (e.g. Yew Trees). The amount of Taxol found on the Wollemi™ pine trees is too small to be used for medicinal purposes.

Propagation
The aim of releasing the Wollemi pine tree is to safeguard its long-term survival by removing the threat of visits to the wild population. As seeds from the wild population are difficult and dangerous to collect, and collection poses the threat of damage to the trees, propagation is being carried out vegetatively from young plants grown from the original seeds and cuttings from the Wollemi pine trees in the wild. Research is also being conducted to test the viability of utilizing micro propagation methods for commercial production.

Dinosaur trees' heavily guarded

Wollemi Pine Thousands of rare baby "dinosaur" trees have been placed under 24-hour security to protect them before they go on sale. About 15,000 Wollemi Pine - a tree once thought to have become extinct millions of years ago - are thriving in a greenhouse in Cornwall.

Horticultural expert Tony Russell, who is helping to arrange the Jurassic exhibit, said the discovery of the Wollemi Pine - a fern-like evergreen tree - was "like finding a living dinosaur".

To save the trees from extinction Wollemi Pine International is spearheading a project to raise saplings from the trees in the wild and make them commercially available across the world. The money raised will help to protect the secret location from outsiders, as well as fund a research programme to establish how the tree has managed to survive 17 Ice Ages.

2008-04-25T05:52:00.000-07:00

Major tree genera

Flowering plants (Magnoliophyta; angiosperms)

Dicotyledons (Magnoliopsida; broadleaf or hardwood trees)

Adoxaceae (Moschatel family)
- Moschatel, Adoxa moschatellina
- Elderberry, Sambucus species
- Sinadoxa, Sinadoxa corydalifolia
- Viburnum, Viburnum species
Altingiaceae (Sweetgum family)
- Sweetgum, Liquidambar species
Anacardiaceae (Cashew family)
- Cashew, Anacardium occidentale
- Mango, Mangifera indica
- Pistachio, Pistacia vera
- Sumac, Rhus species
- Lacquer tree, Toxicodendron verniciflua
Annonaceae (Custard apple family)
- Cherimoya Annona cherimola
- Custard apple Annona reticulata
- Pawpaw Asimina triloba
- Soursop Annona muricata
Apocynaceae (Dogbane family)
- Pachypodium Pachypodium species
Aquifoliaceae (Holly family)
- Holly, Ilex species
Araliaceae (Ivy family)
- Kalopanax, Kalopanax pictus
Betulaceae (Birch family)
- Alder, Alnus species
- Birch, Betula species
- Hornbeam, Carpinus species
- Hazel, Corylus species
Bignoniaceae (family)
- Catalpa, Catalpa species
Cactaceae (Cactus family)
- Saguaro, Carnegiea gigantea
Cannabaceae (Cannabis family)
- Hackberry, Celtis species
Cornaceae (Dogwood family)
- Dogwood, Cornus species
Dipterocarpaceae family
- Garjan Dipterocarpus species
- Sal Shorea species
Ebenaceae (Persimmon family)
- Persimmon, Diospyros species
Ericaceae (Heath family)
- Arbutus, Arbutus species
Eucommiaceae (Eucommia family)
- Eucommia Eucommia ulmoides
Fabaceae (Pea family)
- Acacia, Acacia species
- Honey locust, Gleditsia triacanthos
- Black locust, Robinia pseudoacacia
- Laburnum, Laburnum species
- Pau Brasil, Brazilwood, Caesalpinia echinata
Fagaceae (Beech family )
- Chestnut, Castanea species
- Beech, Fagus species
- Southern beech, Nothofagus species
- Tanoak, Lithocarpus densiflorus
- Oak, Quercus species
Fouquieriaceae (Boojum family)
- Boojum, Fouquieria columnaris
Hamamelidaceae (Witch-hazel family)
- Persian Ironwood, Parrotia persica
Juglandaceae (Walnut family)
- Walnut, Juglans species
- Hickory, Carya species
- Wingnut, Pterocarya species
Lauraceae (Laurel family)
- Cinnamon Cinnamomum zeylanicum
- Bay Laurel Laurus nobilis
- Avocado Persea americana
Lecythidaceae (Paradise nut family)
- Brazil Nut Bertholletia excelsa
Lythraceae Loosestrife family
- Crape-myrtle Lagerstroemia species
Magnoliaceae (Magnolia family)
- Tulip tree, Liriodendron species
- Magnolia, Magnolia species
Malvaceae (Mallow family; including Tiliaceae, Sterculiaceae and Bombacaceae)
- Baobab, Adansonia species
- Silk-cotton tree, Bombax species
- Bottletrees, Brachychiton species
- Kapok, Ceiba pentandra
- Durian, Durio zibethinus
- Balsa, Ochroma lagopus
- Cacao (cocoa), Theobroma cacao
- Linden (Basswood, Lime), Tilia species
Meliaceae (Mahogany family)
- Neem, Azadirachta indica
- Bead tree, Melia azedarach
- Mahogany, Swietenia mahagoni
Moraceae (Mulberry family)
- Fig, Ficus species
- Mulberry, Morus species
Myristicaceae (Nutmeg family)
- Nutmeg, Mysristica fragrans
Myrtaceae (Myrtle family)
- Eucalyptus, Eucalyptus species
- Myrtle, Myrtus species
- Guava, Psidium guajava
Nyssaceae (Tupelo family; sometimes included in Cornaceae)
- Tupelo, Nyssa species
- Dove tree, Davidia involucrata
Oleaceae (Olive family)
- Olive, Olea europaea
- Ash, Fraxinus species
Paulowniaceae (Paulownia family)
- Foxglove Tree, Paulownia species
Platanaceae (Plane family)
- Plane, Platanus species
Rhizophoraceae (Mangrove family)
- Red Mangrove, Rhizophora mangle
Rosaceae (Rose family)
- Rowans, Whitebeams, Service Trees Sorbus species
- Hawthorn, Crataegus species
- Pear, Pyrus species
- Apple, Malus species
- Almond, Prunus dulcis
- Peach, Prunus persica
- Apricot, Prunus armeniaca
- Plum, Prunus domestica
- Cherry, Prunus species
Rubiaceae (Bedstraw family)
- Coffee, Coffea species
Rutaceae (Rue family)
- Citrus, Citrus species
- Cork-tree, Phellodendron species
- Euodia, Tetradium species
Salicaceae (Willow family)
- Aspen, Populus species
- Poplar, Populus species
- Willow, Salix species

Sapindaceae (including Aceraceae, Hippocastanaceae) (Soapberry family)
- Maple, Acer species
- Buckeye, Horse-chestnut, Aesculus species
- Mexican Buckeye, Ungnadia speciosa
- Lychee, Litchi sinensis
- Golden rain tree, Koelreuteria
Sapotaceae (Sapodilla family)
- Argan, Argania spinosa
- Gutta-percha, Palaquium species
- Tambalacoque, or "dodo tree", Sideroxylon grandiflorum, previously Calvaria major
Simaroubaceae family
- Tree of heaven, Ailanthus species
Theaceae (Camellia family)
- Gordonia, Gordonia species
- Stewartia, Stewartia species
Thymelaeaceae (Thymelaea family)
- Ramin, Gonystylus species
Ulmaceae (Elm family)
- Elm, Ulmus species
- Zelkova, Zelkova species
Verbenaceae family
- Teak, Tectona species

Monocotyledons (Liliopsida)

Agavaceae (Agave family)
- Cabbage tree, Cordyline australis
- Dragon tree, Dracaena draco
- Joshua tree, Yucca brevifolia
Arecaceae (Palmae) (Palm family)
- Areca Nut, Areca catechu
- Coconut Cocos nucifera
- Date Palm, Phoenix dactylifera
- Chusan Palm, Trachycarpus fortunei
Poaceae (grass family)
- Bamboos Poaceae subfamily Bambusoideae
Note that banana 'trees' are not actually trees; they are not woody nor is the stalk perennial.

Conifers (Pinophyta; softwood trees)

Araucariaceae (Araucaria family)
- Araucaria, Araucaria species
- Kauri, Agathis species
- Wollemia, Wollemia nobilis
Cupressaceae (Cypress family)
- Cypress, Cupressus species
- Cypress, Chamaecyparis species
- Juniper, Juniperus species
- Alerce or Patagonian cypress, Fitzroya cupressoides
- Sugi, Cryptomeria japonica
- Coast Redwood, Sequoia sempervirens
- Giant Sequoia, Sequoiadendron giganteum
- Dawn Redwood, Metasequoia glyptostroboides
- Western Redcedar Thuja plicata
- Bald Cypress, Taxodium species
Pinaceae (Pine family)
- White pine, Pinus species
- Pinyon pine, Pinus species
- Pine, Pinus species
- Spruce, Picea species
- Larch, Larix species
- Douglas-fir, Pseudotsuga species
- Fir, Abies species
- Cedar, Cedrus species
Podocarpaceae (Yellowwood family)
- African Yellowwood, Afrocarpus falcatus
- Totara, Podocarpus totara
- Miro, Prumnopitys ferruginea
- Kahikatea, Dacrycarpus dacrydioides
- Rimu, Dacrydium cupressinum
Sciadopityaceae,
- Kusamaki, Sciadopitys species
Taxaceae (Yew family)
- Yew, Taxus species

Ginkgos (Ginkgophyta)

Ginkgoaceae (Ginkgo family)
- Ginkgo, Ginkgo biloba

Cycads (Cycadophyta)

Cycadaceae (Cycad family)
- Ngathu cycad, Cycas angulata
Zamiaceae (Zamia family)
- Wunu cycad, Lepidozamia hopei

Ferns (Pteridophyta)

Cyatheaceae and Dicksoniaceae
- Tree ferns, Cyathea, Alsophila, Dicksonia (not a monophyletic group)

Fossil trees

Wattieza, the earliest known tree

Record breaking trees

2008-04-25T05:45:00.000-07:00

Record breaking trees

The world's champion trees can be considered on several factors; height, trunk diameter or girth, total size, and age. It is significant that in each case, the top position is always held by a conifer, though a different species in each case; in most measures, the second to fourth places are also held by conifers.

__________________

Tallest trees

The heights of the tallest trees in the world have been the subject of considerable dispute and much (often wild) exaggeration. Modern verified measurement with laser rangefinders combined with tape drop measurements made by tree climbers, carried out by the U.S. Eastern Native Tree Society has shown that most older measuring methods and measurements are unreliable, often producing exaggerations of 5% to 15% above the real height. Historical claims of trees of 117 m (384 ft), 130 m (427 ft), and even 150 m (492 ft), are now largely disregarded as unreliable, fantasy or outright fraud (however, see "Tallest specimens" chapter in Eucalyptus regnans article). The following are now accepted as the top five tallest reliably measured species:

Coast Redwood Sequoia sempervirens: 115.55 m (379.1 ft), Redwood National Park, California, United States^[7]
Coast Douglas-fir Pseudotsuga menziesii: 99.4 m (326.1 ft), Brummit Creek, Coos County, Oregon, United States^[8]
Australian Mountain-ash Eucalyptus regnans: 97.0 m (318.2 ft), Styx Valley, Tasmania, Australia^[9]
Sitka Spruce Picea sitchensis: 96.7 m (317.3 ft), Prairie Creek Redwoods State Park, California, United States^[10]
Giant Sequoia Sequoiadendron giganteum: 94.9 m (311.4 ft), Redwood Mountain Grove, Kings Canyon National Park, California, United States^[11]

________________________________

Stoutest trees

The girth (circumference) of a tree is much easier to measure than the height, as it is a simple matter of stretching a tape round the trunk, and pulling it taut to find the circumference. Despite this, UK tree author Alan Mitchell made the following comment about measurements of yew trees in a handbook "Conifers in the British Isles":

"The aberrations of past measurements of yews are beyond belief. For example, the tree at Tisbury has a well-defined, clean, if irregular bole at least 1.5 m long. It has been found to have a girth which has dilated and shrunk in the following way: 11.28 m (1834 Loudon), 9.3 m (1892 Lowe), 10.67 m (1903 Elwes and Henry), 9.0 m (1924 E. Swanton), 9.45 m (1959 Mitchell) .... Earlier measurements have therefore been omitted."^[12]

As a general standard, tree girth is taken at 'breast height'; this is defined differently in different situations, with most forestry measurements taking girth at 1.3 m above ground,^[13] while those who measure ornamental trees usually measure at 1.5 m above ground;^[3] in most cases this makes little difference to the measured girth. On sloping ground, the "above ground" reference point is usually taken as the highest point on the ground touching the trunk,^[3]^[13] but some use the average between the highest and lowest points of ground^{[citation needed]}. Some of the inflated old measurements may have been taken at ground level. Some past exaggerated measurements also result from measuring the complete next-to-bark measurement, pushing the tape in and out over every crevice and buttress.^[12]

Modern trends are to cite the tree's diameter rather than the circumference; this is obtained by dividing the measured circumference by π; it assumes the trunk is circular in cross-section (an oval or irregular cross-section would result in a mean diameter slightly greater than the assumed circle). This is cited as dbh (diameter at breast height) in tree and forestry literature.^[3]^[13]

A further problem with measuring baobabs Adansonia is that these trees store large amounts of water in the very soft wood in their trunks. This leads to marked variation in their girth over the year, swelling to a maximum at the end of the rainy season, minimum at the end of the dry season. Although baobabs have some of the highest girth measurements of any trees, no accurate measurements are currently available, but probably do not exceed 10-11 m (33–36 ft) diameter.

The stoutest living single-trunk species in diameter, excluding baobabs, are:

Montezuma Cypress Taxodium mucronatum: 11.62 m (38.1 ft), Árbol del Tule, Santa Maria del Tule, Oaxaca, Mexico.^[14] Note though that this diameter includes buttressing; the actual idealised diameter of the area of its wood is 9.38 m (30.8 ft).^[14]
Giant Sequoia Sequoiadendron giganteum: 8.85 m (29 ft), General Grant tree, Grant Grove, California, United States^[15]
Coast Redwood Sequoia sempervirens: 7.44 m (24.4 ft), Prairie Creek Redwoods State Park, California, United States.^{[citation needed]}

Charles Darwin reported finding Fitzroya cupressoides with trunk circumferences of up to 40 m (130 ft)^[16] implying a diameter of about 12 m (40 ft), but this may be an anomaly as the largest known measurements are about 5 m.^[17]

An addition problem lies in cases where multiple trunks (whether from an individual tree or multiple trees) grow together. The Sacred Fig is a notable example of this, forming additional 'trunks' by growing adventitious roots down from the branches, which then thicken up when the root reaches the ground to form new trunks; a single Sacred Fig tree can have hundreds of such trunks.^[1]

Occasionally, errors may occur due to confusion between girth (circumference) and diameter.^[18]

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Largest trees

The largest trees in total volume are those which are both tall and of large diameter, and in particular, which hold a large diameter high up the trunk. Measurement is very complex, particularly if branch volume is to be included as well as the trunk volume, so measurements have only been made for a small number of trees, and generally only for the trunk. No attempt has ever been made to include root volume.

The top four species measured^[19] so far are:

Giant Sequoia Sequoiadendron giganteum: 1,489 m³ (55,040 cu ft), General Sherman^[19]
Coast Redwood Sequoia sempervirens: 1,045 m³ (36,890 cu ft), Del Norte Titan tree^[19]
Western Redcedar Thuja plicata: 500 m³ (17,650 cu ft ), Quinault Lake Redcedar^[19]
Kauri Agathis australis: circa 400 m³ (15,000 cu ft), Tane Mahuta tree^[19] (total volume, including branches, 516.7 m³/18,247 cu ft)^[19]

However, the Alerce Fitzroya cupressoides, as yet un-measured, may well slot in at third or fourth place, and Montezuma Cypress Taxodium mucronatum and other giants are also likely to be high in the list. The largest angiosperm tree is a Australian Mountain-ash (Eucalyptus regnans) in Tasmania, known as the 'Two Towers' tree, with a volume of 430 m³ (15,185 cu ft).

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Oldest trees

The oldest trees are determined by growth rings, which can be seen if the tree is cut down or in cores taken from the edge to the center of the tree. Accurate determination is only possible for trees which produce growth rings, generally those which occur in seasonal climates; trees in uniform non-seasonal tropical climates grow continuously and do not have distinct growth rings. It is also only possible for trees which are solid to the center of the tree; many very old trees become hollow as the dead heartwood decays away. For some of these species, age estimates have been made on the basis of extrapolating current growth rates, but the results are usually little better than guesswork or wild speculation. White (1998)^[21] proposes a method of estimating the age of large and veteran trees in the United Kingdom through the correlation between a tree's stem diameter, growth character and age.

The verified oldest measured ages are:

Norway Spruce Picea abies: 9,550 years^[22]
Great Basin Bristlecone Pine (Methuselah) Pinus longaeva: 4,844 years^[23]
Alerce Fitzroya cupressoides: 3,622 years^[23]
Giant Sequoia Sequoiadendron giganteum: 3,266 years^[23]
Huon-pine Lagarostrobos franklinii: 2,500 years^[23]
Rocky Mountains Bristlecone Pine Pinus aristata: 2,435 years^[23]

Other species suspected of reaching exceptional age include European Yew Taxus baccata (probably over 2,000 years^[24]^[25]) and Western Redcedar Thuja plicata.

The oldest reported age for an angiosperm tree is 2293 years for the Sri Maha Bodhi Sacred Fig (Ficus religiosa) planted in 288 BC at Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka; this is also the oldest human-planted tree with a known planting date.

About Tree

2008-04-25T05:22:00.000-07:00

A tree is a perenn ial woody plant. It is most often defined as a woody plant that has secondary branches supported clear of the ground on a single main stem or trunk with clear apical dominance.^[1] A minimum height specification at maturity is cited by some authors, varying from 3 m^[2] to 6 m; some authors set a minimum of 10 cm trunk diameter (30 cm girth).^[4] Woody plants that do not meet these definitions by having multiple stems and/or small size, are called shrubs. Compared with most other plants, trees are long-lived, some of them getting to be several thousand years old and growing to up to 115 m (375 ft) high.

Trees are an important component of the natural landscape because of their prevention of erosion and the provision of a specific weather-sheltered ecosystem in and under their foliage. Trees have also been found to play an important role in producing oxygen and reducing carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, as well as moderating ground temperatures. They are also significant elements in landscaping and agriculture, both for their aesthetic appeal and their orchard crops (such as apples). Wood from trees is a common building material. Trees also play an intimate role in many of the world's mythologies.

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Classification

A tree is a plant form that occurs in many different orders and families of plants. Trees show a wide variety of growth forms, leaf type and shape, bark characteristics, and reproductive organs.

The tree form has evolved separately in unrelated classes of plants, in response to similar environmental challenges, making it a classic example of parallel evolution.

The earliest trees were tree ferns and horsetails, which grew in vast forests in the Carboniferous Period; tree ferns still survive, but the only surviving horsetails are not of tree form. Later, in the Triassic Period, conifers, ginkgos, cycads and other gymnosperms appeared, and subsequently flowering plants in the Cretaceous Period. Most species of trees today are flowering plants (Angiosperms) and conifers. The listing below gives examples of many well-known trees and how they are typically classified.

A small group of trees growing together is called a grove or copse, and a landscape covered by a dense growth of trees is called a forest. Several biotopes are defined largely by the trees that inhabit them; examples are rainforest and taiga (see ecozones). A landscape of trees scattered or spaced across grassland (usually grazed or burned over periodically) is called a savanna. A forest of great age is called old growth forest or ancient woodland (in the UK). A young tree is called a sapling.

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Morphology

Tree roots anchor the structure and provide water and nutrients. The ground has eroded away around the roots of this young pine tree.

The basic parts of a tree are the roots, trunk(s), branches, twigs and leaves. Tree stems consist mainly of support and transport tissues (xylem and phloem). Wood consists of xylem cells, and bark is made of phloem and other tissues external to the vascular cambium. Trees may be broadly grouped into exogenous and endogenous trees according to the way in which their stem diameter increases. Exogenous trees, which comprise the great majority of trees (all conifers, and almost all broadleaf trees), grow by the addition of new wood outwards, immediately under the bark. Endogenous trees, mainly in the monocotyledons (e.g., palms and dragon trees), but also cacti, grow by addition of new material inwards.

As an exogenous tree grows, it creates growth rings as new wood is laid down concentrically over the old wood. In species growing in areas with seasonal climate changes, wood growth produced at different times of the year may be visible as alternating light and dark, or soft and hard, rings of wood.^[3] In temperate climates, and tropical climates with a single wet-dry season alternation, the growth rings are annual, each pair of light and dark rings being one year of growth; these are known as annual rings. In areas with two wet and dry seasons each year, there may be two pairs of light and dark rings each year; and in some (mainly semi-desert regions with irregular rainfall), there may be a new growth ring with each rainfall.^[6] In tropical rainforest regions with constant year-round climate, growth is continuous and the growth rings are not visible with no change in the wood texture. In species with annual rings, these rings can be counted to determine the age of the tree, and used to date cores or even wood taken from trees in the past, a practice is known as the science of dendrochronology. Very few tropical trees can be accurately aged in this manner. Age determination is also impossible in endogenous trees.

The roots of a tree are generally embedded in earth, providing anchorage for the above-ground biomass and absorbing water and nutrients from the soil. It should be noted, however, that while ground nutrients are essential to a tree's growth the majority of its biomass comes from carbon dioxide absorbed from the atmosphere (see photosynthesis). Above ground, the trunk gives height to the leaf-bearing branches, aiding in competition with other plant species for sunlight. In many trees, the arrangement of the branches optimizes exposure of the leaves to sunlight.

Not all trees have all the plant organs or parts mentioned above. For example, most palm trees are not branched, the saguaro cactus of North America has no functional leaves, tree ferns do not produce bark, etc. Based on their general shape and size, all of these are nonetheless generally regarded as trees. Indeed, sometimes size is the more important consideration. A plant form that is similar to a tree, but generally having smaller, multiple trunks and/or branches that arise near the ground, is called a shrub. However, no sharp differentiation between shrubs and trees is possible. Given their small size, bonsai plants would not technically be 'trees', but one should not confuse reference to the form of a species with the size or shape of individual specimens. A spruce seedling does not fit the definition of a tree, but all spruces are trees.

Octopus – The Great Mollusk

2008-04-24T23:01:00.000-07:00

Fast Facts
Type: Invertebrate
Diet: Carnivore
Average lifespan in the wild: 1 to 2 years
Size: 12 to 36 in (30.5 to 91.4 cm)[Size relative to a 6ft (2m) man]
Weight: 6.6 to 22 lbs (3 to 10 kg)

Did you know? Common octopuses will collect crustacean shells and other objects to construct fortresses, or "gardens," around their lairs.

There are over 160 different species of Octopus, broken into two large groups:
• Cirrata: Finned octopi that live at depths between 1,000 and 24,000 feet
• Incirrata: non-finned shallow water dwellers

Octopus General Informations

An octopus is a cephalopod. Cephalopods are various marine mollusks of the class Cephalopoda, such as the octopus, squid, cuttlefish, or nautilus, having a large head, large eyes, prehensile tentacles, and, in most species, an ink sac containing a dark fluid used for defense. Cephalopods are really cool animals.
[Octopuses belong to a group known as Cephalopods; other members of this group are cuttlefish, squid and nautilus - all are types of mollusks, like the familiar snail.]

The octopus is very different from a squid. An octopus has eight arms, which can also be called tentacles. It has a round-like body and two large distinct eyes. An octopus comes in many different sizes from two inches to eighteen feet long in length. All eight tentacles have two rows of fleshy suckers. They are also called suction cups. Each octopus has a total of 240 suction cups. The octopus also has a beak like a bird's whch it use to eat its prey.

The common octopus would be unique for its appearance alone, with its massive bulbous head, large eyes, and eight distinctive arms. But by far the most striking characteristic of the octopus is the wide array of techniques it uses to avoid or thwart attackers.

Octopuses live in a variety of conditions in the ocean, from very deep water to coral reefs or even along the shore. Some are adept at leaving the water for a time and hunting along the water's edge, in tide pools. People sometimes think that octopuses can barely move once out of the water. These hunting octopuses travel along very well, collecting good things to eat and stuffing them in their mantle to carry back to their den, where they will have a fine dinner.

Also known as the ‘Devil-Fish’ due to the terror their strange appearance caused early sea-farers the Octopus or “Eight Footed” cephalopod refers to the Genus Octopi, which are members of the Phylum Mollusca of the class Cephalopoda, order and family Octopoda. Characterized by their having eight “legs” which are more accurately referred to as arms, a lack of skeletal structure and unique locomotion capabilities the Octopus is an often misunderstood and much maligned creature.
Each of the octopus’s arms have two rows of suction cups each of which has ‘taste sensors’ to allow it to identify food. With the ability to regenerate lost arms and an eye on each side of its head Octopi are hardy predators with unique self defence mechanisms and very good eyesight. They are however deaf.

Most Octopi have a globe-shaped ‘head’ or mantle that contains all the vital organs and mouth which hold a sharp beak which is used to kill and decimate prey. Their skin is smooth and ranges in color most normally from a tan to light brown with some coloration, but many are able to change colors by contracting skin cells filled with pigments to allow it to hide when hunting for prey. Some Octopi can even mimic other fish and objects, and their defensive arsenal includes the ability to squirt an ink like substance at an attacker to mask their

With life spans of approximately two years Octopus are often confused with squid, another Cephalopoda which has two longer arms called ‘tentacles’ – in an octopus all eight appendages are of a similar length and are called ‘arms’ not legs.
Living primarily in dens which provide refuge from predators including other octopi and various fish their staple consists primarily of crustaceans and molluscs such as crabs and scallops.
This diet is supplemented by other bivalves, snails, fish and even other octopi. They gain access to shelled prey either by pulling it apart, biting it with their beak to break it apart or by drilling through the shell and secreting a toxin to dissolve the connective tissues.

STRANGE FACT

A misconception is that octopi eat their own arms when stressed – but studies have show that this behaviour is caused by a virus that attacks the nervous system although stress may allow the virus to attack more readily.

Although difficult to maintain in captivity it is not unheard of for some people to keep them as pets, although they are very sensitive and their short life span discourages many would-be owners, as does the ability to escape from even well secured tanks due to their well known problem-solving abilities and high intelligence, which has been compared to that of an average house cat. They also are a food source in many parts of the world and some species are even bred and raised exclusively for that purpose.

DEFENSE

Its first—and most amazing—line of defense is its ability to hide in plain sight. Using a network of pigment cells and specialized muscles in its skin, the common octopus can almost instantaneously match the colors, patterns, and even textures of its surroundings. Predators such as sharks, eels, and dolphins swim by without even noticing it.

When discovered, an octopus will release a cloud of black ink to obscure its attacker's view, giving it time to swim away. The ink even contains a substance that dulls a predator's sense of smell, making the fleeing octopus harder to track. Fast swimmers, they can jet forward by expelling water through their mantles. And their soft bodies can squeeze into impossibly small cracks and crevices where predators can't follow.

If all else fails, an octopus can lose an arm to escape a predator's grasp and regrow it later with no permanent damage. They also have beaklike jaws that can deliver a nasty bite, and venomous saliva, used mainly for subduing prey.

OCTOPUS TRAVEL METHODS (LOCOMOTION)
The primary locomotion is to crawl or swim which is achieved via their arms. This allows the octopus to use their suckers to sense any molluscs or food they come into contact with. For fast locomotion however, all octopi have a somewhat unique ability to circulate water through their mantle cavities. While this is primarily used for respiration and waste removal it also is used for rapid locomotion. In addition to providing rapid locomotion octopi have been seen to use this ability for cleaning of dens and to repel pests.

It is not unheard of for Octopi to leave the water for brief periods, and in fact octopuses kept as pets have been known to escape their containers and invade nearby aquariums to utilize the fish as a food source. This unique ability led to a recent Octopus hoax about an ‘endangered species’ of octopi called the ““Pacific Northwest Tree Octopus aka Octopus paxarbolis” which is NONEXISTENT! This interesting faux variant is now often touted as real since being quoted in a research paper but does NOT exist. Supposedly an Octopus found only in the Pacific Northwest it was said to be amphibious, spending only their early life and mating season in the water. I mention it here to help end the misinformation.

CRAWLING
Most commonly the Octopi crawl, using their legs in a scuttling motion to push and pull themselves along a surface or the ocean floor. Crawling is interesting since they do not have full control over their arms, they simply send a high level command for movement and it sorts itself out!

WALKING
There are several species that actually ‘walk’ in the classic sense, using two alternating arms in a rolling gait and utilizing the remaining arms for camouflage: they are the
• Octopus marginatus – which resembles a coconut
• Octopus aculeatus – which appears to be a clump of floating algae

JET PROPULSION

The fastest method of locomotion is the direction of water through their mantles as mentioned previously. During this process water flows into the mantle across the gills from an opening in the head. The octopi builds pressure by sealing off all orifices except for a path called the “funnel” or “siphon” and uses the thick muscles of the mantle wall to squeeze the water out the narrow funnel. Able to reach speeds of 25 miles per hour with this method of travel they utilize it normally only in dire circumstances since their ability to maintain it is limited.
To steer they simply adjust the direction of the funnel and can use it to trap prey in rapid movements as well as shoo away pests and to agitate predators.

FLYING
Even more astonishing is the fact that some octopi have been known to ‘fly’ by blasting themselves out of the water completely to escape predators. Several varieties of squad have also been known to accomplish this feat.
SWIMMING
The finned variety of Octopus, known Cirrata can use their fins as balance and propulsion similar to a fish. They may also use their fins in combination with their funnel, for direction control.

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The Pacific Northwest Tree Octopus

2008-04-24T22:56:00.000-07:00

The Pacific Northwest Tree Octopus fictitious endangered species of cephalopod, was given the Latin name "Octopus paxarbolis" (which means, roughly, "Pacific tree octopus"). It was purported to be able to live both on land and in water, and is said to live in the Olympic National Forest and nearby rivers, spawning in water where eggs are laid.

The Pacific Northwest tree octopus (Octopus paxarbolis) can be found in the temperate rainforests of the Olympic Peninsula on the west coast of North America. Their habitat lies on the Eastern side of the Olympic mountain range, adjacent to Hood Canal. These solitary cephalopods reach an average size (measured from arm-tip to mantle-tip,) of 30-33 cm.

Unlike most other cephalopods, tree octopuses are amphibious, spending only their early life and the period of their mating season in their ancestral aquatic environment. Because of the moistness of the rainforests and specialized skin adaptations, they are able to keep from becoming desiccated for prolonged periods of time, but given the chance they would prefer resting in pooled water.
An intelligent and inquisitive being (it has the largest brain-to-body ratio for any mollusk), the tree octopus explores its arboreal world by both touch and sight.

Adaptations its ancestors originally evolved in the three dimensional environment of the sea have been put to good use in the spatially complex maze of the coniferous Olympic rainforests. The challenges and richness of this environment (and the intimate way in which it interacts with it,) may account for the tree octopus's advanced behavioral development. (Some evolutionary theorists suppose that "arboreal adaptation" is what laid the groundwork in primates for the evolution of the human mind.)

Reaching out with one of her eight arms, each covered in sensitive suckers, a tree octopus might grab a branch to pull herself along in a form of locomotion called tentaculation; or she might be preparing to strike at an insect or small vertebrate, such as a frog or rodent, or steal an egg from a bird's nest; or she might even be examining some object that caught her fancy, instinctively desiring to manipulate it with her dexterous limbs (really deserving the title "sensory organs" more than mere "limbs",) in order to better know it.

Tree octopuses have eyesight comparable to humans. Besides allowing them to see their prey and environment, it helps them in inter-octopus relations. Although they are not social animals like us, they display to one-another their emotions through their ability to change the color of their skin: red indicates anger, white fear, while they normally maintain a mottled brown tone to blend in with the background.

The reproductive cycle of the tree octopus is still linked to its roots in the waters of the Puget Sound from where it is thought to have originated. Every year, in Spring, tree octopuses leave their homes in the Olympic National Forest and migrate towards the shore and, eventually, their spawning grounds in Hood Canal. There, they congregate (the only real social time in their lives,) and find mates. After the male has deposited his sperm, he returns to the forests, leaving the female to find an aquatic lair in which to attach her strands of egg-clusters. The female will guard and care for her eggs until they hatch, refusing even to eat, and usually dying from her selflessness. The young will spend the first month or so floating through Hood Canal, Admiralty Inlet, and as far as North Puget Sound before eventually moving out of the water and beginning their adult lives.
Why It's Endangered

Although the tree octopus is not officially listed on the Endangered Species List, we feel that it should be added since its numbers are at a critically low level for its breeding needs. The reasons for this dire situation include

Decimation of habitat by logging and suburban encroachment; building of roads that cut off access to the water, which it needs for spawning.
Predation by foreign species such as house cats.
Booming populations of its natural predators, including the bald eagle.

The possibility of Pacific Northwest tree octopus extinction is not an unwarranted fear. Other tree octopus species including the Douglas octopus and the red-ringed madrona sucker were once abundant throughout the Cascadia region, but have since gone extinct because of threats similar to those faced by paxarbolis, as well as overharvesting by the now-illegal tree octopus trade.

The history of the tree octopus trade is a sad one. Their voracious appetite for bird plumes having exhausted all the worthy species of that family, the fashionistas moved on to cephalopodic accoutrements during the early 20th Century. Tree octopuses became prized by the fashion industry as ornamental decorations for hats, leading greedy trappers to wipe out whole populations to feed the vanity of the fashionable rich. While fortunately this practice has been outlawed, its effects still reverberate today as these millinery deprivations brought tree octopus numbers below the critical point where even minor environmental change could cause disaster.